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Diálogo regional: Evaluación del impacto de las normas de propiedad Intelectual y acceso a medicamentos, Costa Rica y el Acuerdo CAFTA-DR

Maximiliano Chab — Mon, 29 Jun 2009 12:23:14 +0000

Los Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual (DPI) se han convertido de forma gradual en un elemento de creciente importancia en el marco del acceso a medicamentos, afectando el diseño e implementación de un buen número de programas, acciones y políticas de salud pública. La evaluación del impacto de la protección de los DPI sobre el acceso a medicamentos de manera metodológicamente rigurosa y sistemática resulta esencial tanto para decisores políticos como trabajadores/as del sector salud y otros actores involucrados.

Entre el 18 y 19 de junio se presentó y discutió en las instalaciones del Centro Internacional de Política Económica Para el Desarrollo Sostenible (CINPE) el informe “Impacto de las normas de propiedad intelectual y acceso a medicamentos: Costa Rica y el Acuerdo CAFTA-DR” basado en la utilización de un modelo prospectivo de análisis económico aplicado a la nueva realidad que el acuerdo de libre comercio configura para los países de América Central. Se trata del resultado de un esfuerzo conjunto de las organizaciones (ICSTD, OPS-OLos Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual (DPI) se han convertido de forma gradual en un elemento de creciente importancia en el marco del acceso a medicamentos, afectando el diseño e implementación de un buen número de programas, acciones y políticas de salud pública. La evaluación del impacto de la protección de los DPI sobre el acceso a medicamentos de manera metodológicamente rigurosa y sistemática resulta esencial tanto para decisores políticos como trabajadores/as del sector salud y otros actores involucrados.

Ha sido una buena oportunidad no sólo para dar a conocer las posibles implicaciones del Acuerdo CAFTA-DR sobre el acceso a medicamentos en los países firmantes del CAFTA-DR sino igualmente un escenario propicio para intercambiar experiencias y compartir información sobre las diferentes perspectivas que caracterizan el necesario equilibrio entre Salud Pública y DPI. Especialmente en unos momentos donde, tras la aprobación de la Estrategia Global sobre Salud Pública, Innovación y Propiedad Intelectual y su progresiva implementación en las Américas se perfila un escenario más dinámico con nuevas iniciativas y proyectos específicos dirigidos a promover la innovación y acceso a los medicamentos. MS, PNUD) que conforman el llamado consorcio e igualmente producto del fructífero diálogo del mismo con instituciones locales, en este caso el CINPE.

Cross-Retaliation in TRIPS: Options for Developing Countries

Camille Russell — Fri, 05 Jun 2009 14:40:32 +0000

Cross Retaliation in TRIPS: Options for Developing countries
by Frederick M. Abbott

The possibility for developing WTO Members to suspend concessions in the field of trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) to redress an injury suffered with respect to trade in goods or services is a trade issue receiving increasing attention. Cross-retaliation is expressly contemplated by the WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU). WTO arbitrators have so far approved TRIPS cross-retaliation on two occasions: in favour of Ecuador against the European Communities (EC) and Antigua against the United States (US).

Cross Retaliation in TRIPS: Options for Developing Countries examines many legal questions raised by cross-retaliation in TRIPS and seeks to provide some answers to them. It analyses the cross-cutting issues raised by external commitments and national IPRs-related rules, and looks at each major categories of IPR to suggest practical approaches to suspending (or not suspending) them.

Beyond these legal and practical problems, the paper underlines that the main obstacle facing the less powerful WTO Members in seeking to implement cross-retaliation in TRIPS is likely to be political in nature, in the form of pressures from industry groups and governments of more powerful Members. WTO Members contemplating cross-retaliation in TRIPS should be aware that this will be no easy task.

This paper is produced jointly under ICTSD’s Programme on Dispute Settlement and Legal Aspects of International Trade and the Programme on IPRs and Sustainable Development. While the former aims to explore realistic strategies to maximize developing countries’ capability to engage international dispute settlement systems to defend their trade interest and sustainable development objectives, the latter seeks to achieve a more development oriented and balanced IP system and to identify options for developing countries to ensure that IP norms are supportive of their public policy objectives.

The author, Frederick M. Abbott, is Edward Ball Eminent Scholar Professor of International Law, Florida State University College of Law.

应对国际贸易问题中的专利与技术标准之争

jguan — Tue, 19 May 2009 09:21:51 +0000

国际贸易和可持续发展中心（ICTSD）和联合国贸易和发展会议组织了“知识产权（IPRs）和可持续发展”项目，近期推出了名为“应对国际贸易问题中的专利与技术标准之争”的文章。

由于信息与通信技术（ICT）行业的案件直指标准化过程中“潜底或隐藏”专利对竞争产生的影响，并诉诸美国联邦贸易委员会。虽然最近国际标准化机构已采取一些应对措施，但仍有很多国家目前在这一领域面临困境。2005年中国请求WTO技术性贸易壁垒委员会调查并解决专利与标准之间的交错问题，包括专利和其它知识产权是否会构成技术性贸易壁垒。世界知识产权组织（WIPO）专利常务委员会的成员也呼吁对这一议题进行更深入的研究。

在对软件的专利、版权保护与标准之间关联的分析上，该文章试从标准制定、生产和贸易提供三个角度提供更清晰的视角，谈及了专利与技术标准之争议缘由，并从中国的案例对专利、标准和贸易表示了忧虑，最后提出若干政策选项供参考。

国际标准制定

WTO鼓励成员使用自愿性国际标准作为强制性技术标准的基础，并在其能力所及范围内参加国际标准制定组织。对于一套给定标准制定机构制定的技术规范，会有多种技术适用，而很多存在标准的领域往往是专利密集的，特别是在高科技领域如信息和通讯技术、电子产品等。。在标准制定过程中，所有私营参与方都会自然而然地在新标准中尽可能多地纳入他们控制或使用的技术或操作。

制造

在生产过程中专利与标准之间的问题包括繁琐的专利使用许可程序、法律的不确定性、专利使用费过高或具攻击性以致很多情况下几乎等同于拒绝交易、以及差别定价。当标准由为数不多的具有高度市场控制能力的生产商占有，成了封闭（或受控制的）标准时，相关技术的专利所有人就可能区别对待被许可人，采取攻击性收费或区别收费。这会影响成本分配和价格并能最终决定销售业绩和能否取得商业成功，从而会干扰商业计划和生产。

为了取得专利使用费，很多公司专门从事研发与现有或未来标准相吻合的可以获得专利的发明。这种行为使“专利丛林”（即密集专利活动的领域）现象雪上加霜，并加重了专利与标准的交错。当存在诸多专利所有人，要使用某种资源必须得到每个专利所有人的许可时，就会出现“反公共地悲剧”（即无法使用公共物品）。知识产权之泛滥很有可能造成资源无法得到充分利用、创新受到遏制、生产过程减慢。

国际贸易

根据WTO的研究，“标准化程度趋高的技术部门往往是专利密集和出口密集的”。这一方面暗示了标准化和专利之间的高度关联，另一方面也显示出标准对制造和国际贸易的下游控制。有能力制定国家或国际标准的厂商就可以在新标准中纳入他们的方法、操作和技术，从而实现较低的交易和生产成本，加大对谁生产、谁贸易的控制。因此无论是谁，只要可以设立标准就能获取通往国际市场的便利。这对很多发展中国家的企业而言，达到国际标准本身已经相当困难，而为获取标准所需相关技术的使用权而必须履行的复杂而繁琐的许可程序则使他们更难参与国际贸易。在这种环境下，标准制定过程的特征就是政治与经济竞争，所有公司都在为争取未来标准的领导地位而欺诈。专利只是为获取这种不公平的优势而被滥用的工具之一。

中国案例

DVD机的案例表明标准可在极大程度上影响谁可以生产、谁可以贸易并最终谁可以获得经济利益。根据《中国日报》的报导，中国DVD机制造商为包括这种技术在内的各种标准所付的版税占生产成本的20％到50％。某些型号DVD机的版税甚至高达50％。这些花费对中国生产商的最大化利润的能力提出了挑战。

为了应对这些挑战，中国着手实施平行战略。该战略包括以低成本的本国技术或经改良适应本国实际情况的技术为基础制定国内标准。中国电子技术标准化研究所的一份文件中指出：“中国被迫制定自有标准完全是因为发达国家过分使用非关税贸易壁垒（包括使用知识产权），中国不得不改变自己的立场从防守转为攻击。我们需要使用专利体系促进自己的技术进步。只有拥有自己的知识产权，我们才能克服发达国家设立的技术壁垒。”这项战略在发展中国家中是前所未有的，目标是使中国成为“创新社会”。中国与其他发展中国家的最大区别在于它拥有巨大的市场，有助于实现这种宏伟目标。

中国的第二个战略体现在向WTO的TBT委员会提交的两份交流文件中。这些文件阐明了标准与专利问题的实质、对国际贸易的影响、该领域的主要国际参与者以及当专利和标准存在交错时必须找到一个均衡点。中国已经建议成员利用每三年一次对TBT协定的审议制定恰当的方法和政策促进国际标准的发展和执行，同时也是为了TBT协定本身得以有效实施。

最后，发达国家的政府和业界以及主要的标准制定组织需重视中国进一步融入国际标准社会，并采取更加合作的态度。
本文由张蔚蔚翻译，管仅编辑。

查看英文版本，请点击此处。

Biofuel Prodction, Trade and Sustainable Development

Tamara Asamoah — Wed, 06 May 2009 12:09:25 +0000

Unstable oil prices, the challenge of climate-change mitigation, and growing concerns over energy security are driving a growth in global production of bioenergy, particularly liquid biofuels such
as ethanol and biodiesel, with implications for agriculture, energy, environment, development and trade. Biofuels could offer countries the potential to curb carbon dioxide emissions, reduce
dependence on imported fuels, and maintain production and generate new employment in the agricultural sector. For many countries, the potential of biofuels is contemplated in terms of supplying domestic energy needs and exports. Although international trade in biofuels is still limited - it is estimated that currently only one-tenth of global production worldwide is traded internationally - international trade in biofuels is expected to grow considerably given the divide between countries with comparatively lower production costs and countries with the greatest demand for biofuels. Clearly, social, economic and environmental opportunities abound….

Burden of Proof in WTO Dispute Settlement: Contemplating Preponderance of the Evidence

bkraus — Tue, 21 Apr 2009 14:14:32 +0000

The Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), the agreement that governs the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, seeks to ensure an improved prospect of compliance, given its provisions on compensation and retaliation and thus constitutes a central element in providing security and predictability to the multilateral trade system.

Now in its second decade, member states have demonstrated that the structure and enforcement mechanisms provided by the DSU provide a legal recourse unparalleled by many similar intergovernmental bodies. Yet growing use has revealed problems within the institutional framework of the system itself, as well as in the jurisprudence thus far developed.

These shortcomings threaten the continued usefulness of the dispute settlement body, and by implication, the very legitimacy of the multilateral trading system itself. Truly, without effective adjudication under the DSU, a major advantage of multilateral trade coordination is lost as members will invariably seek unilateral recourse in trade disputes.

The burden of proof as currently applied is one such point of concern.

A legal principle not defined by the DSU, its meaning only emerges through amalgamation of Appellate Body decisions. Oft repeated yet inescapably uncertain, the rule has emerged that parties must forward sufficient evidence to make a ‘prima facie‘ case.

Illusive in both definition and application, this principle can create profound challenges to system participation and overall function. Appellate Body reasoning has been applied capriciously at the panel level, undermining predictability. Contradictions between rulings undermine consistency, and overall system transparency is eroded as how much and what kind of evidence is required to satisfy the burden is unknown, allowing decision makers to seemingly draw arbitrary distinctions amongst evidentiary submissions.

Since the adjudication of trade disputes would remain ambiguous without the transparent and consistent application of the burden of proof, the lack of clarity within the ‘prima facie‘ principle could be seen to detract from overall system legitimacy while further presenting an additional obstacle to entry for inexperienced members, especially the developing and least developed amongst them, wishing to engage in the dispute settlement system.

This study clarifies the standard through reference to WTO jurisprudence, scholarly analysis, as well as international and domestic legal traditions. Providing both general overview and focused guidance, this paper tracks case-by-case interpretations of the standard at all levels of WTO dispute settlement, providing key language while attempting to reconcile internal contradictions.

After comprehensive analysis, this study advocates modifying the burden of proof to a preponderance of the evidence standard, a principle which the authors argue is better suited to the inherent structural organization of the Dispute Settlement Mechanism.

It is the central conclusion of this paper that such an adoption would provide clarity within the system while easing the entry of new participants to the system - both ultimate goals of the DSU. Providing useful commentary on how this new standard may be implemented, this study cites evidence from recent decisions indicating that a shift to this standard may already be underway within the dispute settlement system.

This study aims to assist both experienced practitioners and newcomers in understanding the current nuances of the dispute settlement system, while also presenting a well-reasoned argument for reform. It is our hope that you find this paper a useful contribution within the field.

This paper is produced under ICTSD’s research and dialogue program on Dispute Settlement and Legal Aspects of International Trade which aims to explore realistic strategies to maximize developing countries’ capability to engage international dispute settlement systems to defend their trade interest and sustainable development objectives. The authors are James Headen Pfitzer, legal technical officer at the World Health Organization in Geneva, and Sheila Sabune, Trade in Services and Dispute Settlement Programme Officer at ICTSD.

Suspension of Concessions in the Services Sector: Legal, Technical and Economic Problems

bkraus — Thu, 16 Apr 2009 09:39:23 +0000

The creation of the WTO dispute settlement system has been called a major achievement by observers and its importance has been echoed from all sides of the multilateral trading system. The Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), the agreement that governs the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, seeks to ensure an improved prospect of compliance, given its provisions on compensation and retaliation and thus constitutes a central element in providing security and predictability to the multilateral trade system.

Now in its second decade, the mechanisms and jurisprudence of the World Trade Organization continue to develop as Members gain experience applying the various provisions of the DSU. Although formal provisions exist whereby members may attempt to compel compliance of offending countries, many observers repeatedly identify implementation and enforcement as a continued source of frustration. Of those, one of the most equivocal methods of compelling compliance is the suspension of concessions.

With relatively few arbitral decisions and a notable lack of definitional guidance, member states attempting suspension have been forced to proceed with uncertainty in a continually evolving body of law. Concepts such as equivalence in retaliatory suspensions are not defined by the DSU, while standards of review and evidentiary weight have only been developed through the literal trial and error of members.

Presenting concise legal analysis as well as general overview, this study will assist both experienced practitioners and newcomers with the process of suspension of concessions in the services sector, with particular focus on GATS concessions. This publication provides clear guidance through doctrinal scrutiny and reference to the most recent jurisprudence, with particular reference on the instructive decisions of EC-Bananas (III) and US-Gambling.

This study additionally provides useful discussion on the mechanics of suspending concessions, describing in clear language the exact structure and procedures characterizing the body of law, with particular examination of suspension of specific commitments across the different modes of supply. Furthermore, the study explores the legal, technical and economic problems of retaliatory and cross retaliatory actions, presenting both practical guidance and strategic considerations for those wishing to employ this method of inducing compliance.

Of particular importance is the insight this publication provides to developing nations.

Historically, problems of compliance have often been most poignantly experienced by these countries, which often lack trade leverage over developed nations, and there is a sense among many that formal provisions for inducing DSU compliance continue these systemic inequities.

This study examines the potential reasons developing nations avoid compelling compliance, while offering considerations for those nations wishing to enforce suspension of concessions against the largest trading nations. Noting that in most situations, retaliation is likely to hurt complaining parties, this study identifies the cross-retaliatory suspensions most likely to compel enforcement among developed nations. Arguing that high profile and politically influential service sectors are most vulnerable to trade pressure, this study identifies the potential utility of suspending concessions against the financial service sector through taxation measures.

However, this study extends a message of caution to developing nations attempting to suspend concessions, concluding that in most cases cross-retaliation in services is unlikely to be successful and can be detrimental to the complaining party - particularly to those from developing countries.

This paper is produced under ICTSD’s research and dialogue program on Dispute Settlement and Legal Aspects of International Trade which aims to explore realistic strategies to maximize developing countries’ capability to engage international dispute settlement systems to defend their trade interest and sustainable development objectives. The author is Dr. Arthur E. Appleton, a partner at Appleton Luff law firm.

Addressing the Interface between Patents and Technical Standards in International Trade Discussions

Camille Russell — Fri, 20 Mar 2009 15:12:11 +0000

The UNCTAD – ICTSD project on IPRs and Sustainable Development is pleased to announce the availability of Policy Brief 3, entitled Addressing the Interface between Patents and Technical Standards in International Trade Discussions.

The Policy Brief provides a comprehensive perspective on the interface between patents and standards by discussing standards setting, manufacturing and trade and by suggesting policy options.

Tensions between technical standards and patents rose in the early 1990’s in the United States with the development of concerns regarding unfair competition in the context of hidden patents. Since then, discussions have taken place to explore this matter at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). However, many countries continue to face difficulties in this area- including how patents and other intellectual property rights might become technical barriers to trade. Potential conflicts arise when the implementation of technical standard calls for the use of technology covered by one of more patents.

In this regard, the Policy Brief examines a number of cases and examples in relation to the Open Office controversy, Standards and Anticompetitive Practices, and Abusive Licensing Terms and Compulsory Licensing in the CD-R Case. It also includes a number of recommendations such as: Increasing participation of developing countries’ governments and firms in standard-setting organisations (SSOs); facilitating collective licensing agreements in standards by national standards authorities in areas of relevance to the public interest and areas that may be controversial; Exploring patent pools, innovative cross-licensing schemes, open standards in order to solve the unfair competition in regards to patents and standards.

Finally, in international deliberations, for example in WIPOs Standing Committee on Patents (SCP), it might be opportune to consider the importance of having a better understanding of how to address abusive pricing, unreasonable terms and conditions, and other anticompetitive practices. The involvement of competition authorities couple contribute to this debate, particularly on how these issues could be resolved through the effective use of competition policy and law, including remedies such as the use of a license of right or the non enforceability relevant to IPRs.
The objective of these Policy Briefs is to provide timely, concise and well targeted policy oriented research and analysis by leading experts and scholars with a view to improving our understanding of the public policy issues at hand as well as suggesting concrete options and recommendations for dealing with them, particularly in international negotiations and deliberations.
Since its launch in 2001, the UNCTAD-ICTSD Project on IPRs and Sustainable Development has sought to achieve a better understanding of the development implications of IPRs; facilitate informed participation in ongoing multilateral, regional and bilateral negotiations, as well as to assist countries in designing and implementing appropriate IP laws and policies which take into consideration their economic and social needs and are supportive of their development objectives. It has contributed in recent years to efforts to achieve a more inclusive and development oriented international IP system which balances private rights and public interest.

The Global Debate on the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights and Developing Countries

Camille Russell — Wed, 11 Mar 2009 10:27:02 +0000

Issue paper 22, The Global Debate on the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights and Developing Countries brings together two studies: The first by Carsten Fink entitled Enforcing Intellectual Property Rights: An Economic Perspective and the second by Carlos Correa entitled The Push for Stronger IPRs Enforcement Rules: Implications for Developing Countries.

The enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) has gained prominence in recent years on the global trade and intellectual property agenda. A number of initiatives and developments in this area at the global, regional and bilateral level carry wide reaching implications for the regulation of the knowledge economy.

In the first study, Carsten Fink provides a much needed economic perspective on the enforcement of IPRs. Some of the key conclusions and recommendations of the study are the following :

·         There is little empirical evidence that would shed light on the economic impact of piracy and counterfeiting.
·         The appropriate allocation of resources for IPRs enforcement is a major challenge for developing countries, where many public goods are underprovided and enforcement challenges exist in many areas of law.
·         Appropriate funding of competent government agencies in developing countries is necessary for IPRs enforcement;
·         Since developed country firms derive a direct benefit from stronger IPRs enforcement, it may indeed be in the interest of their governments to subsidize IPRs enforcement activities in developing countries. It could also be envisaged that enforcement costs be borne directly by private rights holders.
·         If weak IPRs enforcement in developing countries reflects fundamental institutional deficiencies, it is not clear how far obligations in trade agreements or technical assistance activities can at all remedy such deficiencies.
·         Outside incentives—whether positive or negative—may well make a difference in containing counterfeiting and piracy activities and their international proliferation. However, in many cases, sustained reductions in IPRs violations may invariably have to wait for broader institutional development

In the second study, Carlos Correa addresses the push for stronger IPRs enforcement rules and its implications for developing countries. Some of the key conclusions and recommendations of the study are the following:

·         A number of initiatives have been recently launched with the aim of strengthening IPRs enforcement rules beyond the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement.
·         Although the TRIPS Agreement requires criminal sanctions only in cases of willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale, the current enforcement drive aims at criminalizing other infringing acts, inclduding patent infringement.
·         Developed countries’ governments and industry are actively seeking to induce changes in the regulation of border measures in developing countries, beyond what is required under the TRIPS Agreement. They aim, inter alia, at broadening their scope and at reducing the requirements imposed on right holders to obtain such measures.
·         A major issue in the enforcement drive is the relation between IP and health. The application of an IP approach to what is essentially a public health issue may lead to the adoption of an inadequate set of measures. In the case of counterfeit medicines, the appropriate design and implementation of drug regulations is the most critical element in combating counterfeiting in medicines.

Hacia Una Lista Potencial De Bienes Ambientales Para Sudamérica

Mahesh Sugathan — Fri, 06 Mar 2009 15:23:41 +0000

Es evidente que el concepto de “desarrollo sostenible”, aún con sus detractores, se ha instalado de manera definitiva en las agendas políticas nacionales e internacionales. Y una de las discusiones más interesantes que se dan dentro de la búsqueda permanente de esta forma casi universalmente aceptada de desarrollo, es cómo generar una dinámica y sinergias positivas entre el comercio internacional y una adecuada protección del ambiente y la conservación de los recursos naturales, sustento básico de mucho de este comercio en la mayoría de economías de países en desarrollo.

Esto a su vez se inserta en un contexto internacional donde la agenda de la Organización Mundial de Comercio (OMC) y los Acuerdos de Libre Comercio que se multiplican alrededor del mundo, intentan definir el rumbo y la dinámica de los intercambios comerciales entre las regiones y países.

Frente a la OMC y estos procesos de liberación comercial, los Acuerdos Multilaterales de Medio Ambiente (AMUMA) plantean retos y desafíos en la medida que las posiciones de los países desarrollados-orientadas a incrementar niveles y estándares de protección ambiental -se contraponen a la posición de los países en desarrollo que encuentran en estos mismos Acuerdos algunos escollos (por ejemplo en el ámbito laboral, productivo y comercial) que se perciben como limitantes para las posibilidades de progreso social y económico.

Dentro de la OMC, entre los múltiples temas que se abordan y, especialmente como parte de la Ronda de Doha, se encuentra precisamente, cómo compatibilizar la necesidad de promover un crecimiento económico en el tiempo (muchas veces presionando sobre el ambiente y los recursos naturales) al mismo tiempo que se mantienen o mejoran niveles de protección ambiental que permitan el mantenimiento de los sistemas ecológicos y, en general, un medio saludable para los seres humanos.

El trabajo de Jaime García “Hacia una Lista Potencial de Bienes Ambientales para Sudamérica: Criterios para una Perspectiva de Desarrollo Sostenible”, ofrece un análisis bastante pormenorizado de una de las variables más controvertidas dentro de los debates internacionales al interior de la OMC y otros foros. A saber, cómo entender la noción de “bienes ambientales” de manera que permita a los países en desarrollo- especialmente a los países andinos -posicionarse mejor en estas discusiones y sacar ventaja de un hecho incontrastable: una riqueza en términos de biodiversidad a nivel de ecosistemas, especies y recursos genéticos. Paradójicamente, esta enorme riqueza contrasta con niveles de pobreza alarmantes en estos países que inciden en una continua degradación ambiental y la disminución de la calidad de vida en general.

García describe claramente cómo los países desarrollados han logrado (con matices) definir y precisar lo que son bienes ambientales y plantear para ellos, por ejemplo, la eliminación de aranceles. Estos países entienden claramente las implicancias de diferenciar entre definiciones tradicionales de “bienes ambientales” (donde tienen ventajas en las negociaciones internacionales) que incluyen la gestión de la contaminación, la generación de tecnologías limpias y métodos de producción más eficientes y definiciones más amplias que podrían incluir productos ambientales tales como fibras controles biológicos, productos no maderables del bosque, productos resultantes de eco-negocios, entre otros, donde los países en desarrollo tiene más bien mejores posibilidades por explotar en estas mismas negociaciones.

En ese sentido, los países sudamericanos, en esencia, no han logrado por distintas razones tales como el desinterés político, limitadas capacidades institucionales y hasta desconocimiento de la relevancia de los temas, armonizar sus posiciones y en algunos casos tienen una participación casi nula o muy poco relevante en el contexto de las negociaciones internacionales donde se discute sobre los bienes ambientales y el comercio.

Esto último, como lo sugiere el autor, hace evidente una limitada articulación entre actores de la sociedad civil, el sector empresarial y productivo y el Estado en la evaluación de opciones y generación de estrategias para sacar ventajas en el ámbito de las negociaciones comerciales internacionales (especialmente en la OMC) de una mayor riqueza potencial en cuanto a bienes ambientales casi connaturales al medio geográfico y ecológico de estos países.

El trabajo de García se hace también bastante digerible en la medida que incluye una serie de conclusiones y recomendaciones pertinentes al tema de los bienes ambientales. Los anexos y especialmente a bibliografía utilizada ofrecen una herramienta útil para profundizar y ampliar el análisis de los temas.

Jaime García es Economista y catedrático de la Universidad de Lima y su investigación fue financiada a través del Programa de Bienes y Servicios Ambientales del Centro Internacional para el Comercio y el Desarrollo Sostenible (ICTSD) con sede en Ginebra, Suiza y que a su vez ha sido apoyado por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Luxemburgo.

Sin duda, el trabajo de García constituye un excelente esfuerzo por sistematizar y sintetizar información y datos relevantes para a partir de ello proponer algunas reflexiones que deben contribuir a despertar el interés de los países y sus diferentes actores en los procesos de negociación comercial- ambiental internacional, con particular énfasis en las actualmente un tanto lentas negociaciones en el ámbito de la OMC.

Climate Change and Trade on the Road to Copenhagen

Marie Chamay — Fri, 13 Feb 2009 13:49:53 +0000

The global effort to address climate change will require a fundamental transformation of our economies and of the ways in which we use energy. Addressing climate change requires the internalisation of carbon costs, which will have signifi cant effects on what we produce, where we produce, what we trade and how we trade. For international co-operation on climate change to be effective, international regulatory frameworks need to support this effort.

The current phase of negotiations under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is set to lay the groundwork for the necessary policy reforms, and will require concerted and cooperative efforts by individual countries, the business sector and civil society. Innovation – with regard to both the technologies of the future and the regulatory frameworks used to usher them in at the scale needed – will be key to the successful implementation of the Convention. In this context, both the global trade regime through the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trading arrangements may need to be moulded and reformed to support action on climate change. As negotiations accelerate in the lead-up to the Copenhagen meeting in December 2009 and beyond, trade-offs and trade-related issues have emerged as elements of the discussions. Some of the issues within the future climate regime will have direct repercussions on the trade realm, and need to be well understood and prepared for. In order to contribute to the debate, this paper provides information on the most salient and pressing policy linkages. It addresses issues in the climate-trade interface that are relatively well known as well as emerging areas that need to be further researched.

The debate on trade and climate change has often treated climate change and trade policies as either friends or foes. The approach adopted in this paper takes climate change as the entry point. It frames the discussion within the fi ve pillars of the Bali Road Map: i) the long-term vision, ii) mitigation of climate change, iii) adaptation to climate change, iv) technology and v) fi nancing. The paper examines the various trade and climate change policy interlinkages with a view to identifying a positive agenda for trade and trade policies to contribute to a successful global climate change agreement and its implementation.

Produced by ICTSD under its Global Platform on Climate Change, Trade Policies and Sustainable Energy, this paper includes contributions from ICTSD staff in the programmes on climate change and energy, intellectual property and innovation, agriculture and development.

The Global Platform is aimed at contributing to effective international co-operation towards addressing climate change. It does so by advancing analytical capacity of stakeholders and their interaction with policy makers such that effective solutions can be identifi ed and agreed by the international community at the Copenhagen Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in December 2009.