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	<title>ICTSD &#187; Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda</title>
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	<link>http://ictsd.org</link>
	<description>International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development</description>
	<pubDate>Thu, 02 Sep 2010 15:26:59 +0000</pubDate>
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		<title>桥 (Qiáo) &#124;&#160;欧盟与气候变化有关的贸易政策之走势：对中国政府和产业界的影响</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82821/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82821/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 13 Aug 2010 16:19:47 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Andrew Aziz</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=82821</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[成帅华
欧盟2020战略提出， 贸易政策必须回应环境和气候变化问题，但同时要避免转向贸易保护主义。 这固然是一个很好的目标， 但是欧盟将怎样达到这个目标则是困难的，其政策路径往往是模棱两可甚至是自相矛盾的。
如何把握欧盟下一步的气候变化和贸易政策，对于中国政府和企业的决策者来说是一个十分重要的议题。
欧盟与气候有关的贸易政策的基本背景
欧盟一直有意在减少温室气体、减缓气候变化方面担当世界领导者的角色。但是，面临两个方面的主要挑战。
从外部看，不少人批评欧盟说得很多，减排效果却很有限。比如，一些评论家认为，欧洲率先设立的碳排放权交易系统(ETS)，虽然提出了减排的指标， 但是因为首批碳放权都是免费发放的，实际上并没有促进企业进行技术革新、反而推迟了走低碳道路的时间。 另外，从国际经济法的角度看，也有专家认为欧盟免费 发放的碳减排指标，其实质是对企业的补贴，不符合WTO有关补贴和反补贴的规则。
从欧盟内部看，不少人认为欧盟企业为达到更严格的减排目标而付出了额外的成本，从而导致在国际市场上的竞争力削弱和‘碳泄漏’问题。关于竞争力的担 忧，是指欧盟企业担心欧盟以外的厂家因为可以无节制的排放而担负较低的成本或者根本没有成本，从而造成了一个不公平的贸易环境，致使欧盟厂家处于不利的竞 争地位。碳泄漏的问题，指由于欧盟更严格的排放标准增加了欧洲企业的生产和运营成本，从而导致某些欧洲企业将投资转移到欧洲以外的地方，所以说碳并没有减 排，而只是泄漏到欧洲其外的地方了。
当前，国际气候变化谈判的前景不乐观，在短期内达成一个有法律约束力的全球减排协议可能性不大，在全球范围形成一个相对稳定的二氧化碳（排放权）价格更是遥遥无期。 再加上欧洲经济自从去年陷入低谷，迟迟不能走出危机，产业界和公民社会对竞争力和碳泄露的担忧进一步加剧。
未来欧盟政策的重点
在这样的背景下，欧盟贸易总司和欧洲经济与社会委员会等机构正积极酝酿下一步的政策取向。具体有这样几个重点。
首先，在雄心勃勃的碳减排目标下，设置一些缺口。
欧盟仍然计划设定较高的减排目标，比如到2050年在1990年基础上削减80%，而中期的2020-2030期间的目标是削减25-40%。 但是欧盟内部对于这个减排目标将对欧洲中长期的环境、就业和经济发展有何影响没有把握。
在改革碳排放权交易系统方面，欧盟也计划从2013年起逐步从免费发放排放权转变到排放权的拍卖，目标是到2020年拍卖的碳排放权至少占到70%，最终到2025年所有的排放权将进入拍卖。
但是，欧盟的一些专家提出，对于那些面临贸易竞争力挑战和‘碳泄漏’风险的行业给予宽限，即从2013年起继续给这些行业免费提供一定数额的排放 权。参照欧盟第2003/87/EC号指令第10a（15）条的规定，欧盟经济与社会委员会指出有11个行业，即：淀粉及淀粉制品，糖生产制造，其他非蒸 馏的发酵饮料，发酵材料中的酒精生产制造，纸张和纸板的制造，精炼石油产品制造，平板玻璃的制造，中空玻璃制造，陶瓷砖和陶瓷板的制造，铸铁管制造，铅， 锌，锡生产。
其次，在支持WTO多哈回合下的环境产品和服务贸易自由化谈判的同时，要开辟新的绿色技术贸易的途径。
IPCC已经建议了一系列的缓解和适应气候变化技术，其中很多技术正在WTO的环境产品和服务项下进行谈判，包括风能和水电涡轮，太阳能锅炉，太阳能电池和设备等。
欧盟认为短期来看，这些技术的进一步自由化对解决气候变化影响甚微，因为很多产品，特别是再生能源产品的关税水平已经很低（发达国家的平均关税 2%，  发展中国家平均6%）。相反，投资障碍和非关税壁垒将继续是这些技术向发展中国家扩散的主要障碍，包括繁杂的行政审批程序、要求服务提供商必须在进口国有 实体企业、以及对外国企业的活动限制。欧盟希望通过双边和区域性的贸易协议来解决欧盟产品和技术出口中的问题。
第三，对于联合国气候变化公约多边框架下达成有法律约束力的协定的希望降低，想借鉴美国和东亚实行的自下而上的战略。
从第一阶段欧洲碳排放权交易的实际效果来看，欧盟开始意识到不能只把希望寄托在碳市场上。特别是在短期内难以形成一个覆盖全球的碳市场，依靠碳价格来减少排放、实现欧洲经济的低碳转型是不现实的。相反，仅仅依靠碳市场可能使欧洲错失技术创新的时机。
欧盟逐步意识到有必要效法美国和东亚的自下而上的战略，加强对环保技术的创新研发进行投资，包括财政和税收上的激励措施，以及鼓励各个地方和区域性政府机构通过政府公共采购来支持清洁技术的发展。
第四，重视行业性方案，特别是高排放贸易量大的行业、航空运输也和水处理技术行业。
由于多边政府间谈判迟迟没有进展，欧盟更加重视行业性的方案也解决气候变化和贸易的问题。一是达成并执行一个国际行业性协议。关于这个议题，国际上 已经讨论了十多年了。虽然一直没有形成共识，但是，欧盟认为对于高能耗的行业（比如上文中已经提到的11个贸易强度大的有碳泄漏风险的行业），跨国的行业 性协议仍是一个可能的途径。
运输行业是下一阶段欧盟实施更严格减排管理的重要行业。欧盟支持联合国气候变化框架公约提出的航空业削减10%和海洋运输削减20%的目标。从 2012年起，航空运输业将被纳入欧洲碳排放权交易系统。根据RDC航空咨询公司的估算，这将意味着给欧洲航空公司每年增加11亿欧元的成本。欧洲碳排放 权交易系统宣布从2012年起将涵盖所有飞入欧盟的航空公司，这个有争议的决定将给欧洲本土以外的航空公司带来很大的影响。
另一个越来越得到重视的是水行业。一是因为气候变化对水资源分配的影响，造成或者恶化很多地方水资源的稀缺，二是因为城市化和工业化导致生活和工业废水的污染问题加剧。欧盟希望促进水行业的技术转移和合作，包括饮用水、海水淡化技术、废弃水的再利用等。
上述贸易量大、高排放的11个行业的中国企业需要警惕欧盟的最终政策走向，如果欧盟对本国企业提供免费碳排放权，同时对进口产品征收边境调节税或者要求购买碳排放指标的话，这有可能构成对进口产品的歧视，不符合其在WTO中的义务。
对于进入欧洲航空市场的中国航空企业，一方面需要积极准备向欧洲碳排放交易系统提交所需的以往年度经营额和能源消耗数据等资料，同时也要密切跟踪美 国航空业协会起诉欧洲碳排放权系统一案的进展。美国航空协会认为欧盟单方面把非欧盟航空企业纳入欧洲排放权交易系统违反了芝加哥公约禁止治外法权的原则以 及WTO有关进口税费的规则。
至于水技术设备和服务行业，对中国来说是一个极好的机遇，有助于解决中国急迫面临的饮用水和废弃水管理的问题。欧洲国家在水管理方面具有很强的优 势，经验丰富，技术手段完备。政府应当积极支持中国企业和欧盟之间的合作，促进技术转让和贸易，鼓励共同投资，开放水处理的服务市场。
第五，欧盟密切关注消费者和厂家的责任分担问题，积极推进碳会计（carbon accounting）。
消费者和厂家都应当对碳排放承担责任，比如制造商承担制造过程中的碳排放，而消费者对于流通运输和商店的碳排放担负责任。不仅如此，消费者的购物选择可以反过来影响厂商的行为。如果消费者选择那些生产过程低碳、环保的产品，就会鼓励厂家的技术更新。
欧盟日益重视消费者一端的作用，主要出于两个方面的原因。一是因为短期内难以形成有效的国际性规则来管制和约束生产厂家。全球化条件下单个产品的价 值链往往跨越多个国家，也进一步加大了在国别层面进行碳排放监管的难度。二是因为欧洲市场已经开始出现了一些自愿性的低碳、环保标签，但是市场上出现的这 些倡议比较混乱，处理得不好可能不利于消费者的参与。
当前的重点是细化“碳会计”的方法论。欧盟建议碳会计核算应当包括产品整个生命周期，从设计、投产到流通，同时增加碳会计制度的稳定性和连续性，并且在欧盟层面设立一个合适的机构框架对这些标准加以管理和评估。
这将对国际贸易产生巨大的冲击。主要是因为，传统的贸易措施关注的是最终产品的质量和环保表现，比如这个冰箱是否节能，而新的碳排放会计要考察这个 冰箱的整个生命周期即制造过程的节能程度如何、其原料来源和废弃物排放管理如何、该产品在运输流通中的碳排放以及产品寿命结束后分解或者回收再利用中的环 境表现。这是复杂的，但是如果处理得好的确是有利于地球环境和生活环境的长远之举。
结论
贸易政策可以、也应当能够部分地解决环境和气候变化问题，这是一个很好的设想。对于实践这样的结合，无疑这不是一个理想的世界，欧盟的尝试也必定是艰难的。
在内外两方面受到批评的情况下，欧盟将一方面维持其雄心勃勃的减排目标，同时推行一些过渡性的措施。某些措施可能与一些既定的国际规则相矛盾，比如 2012年以后继续给高排放、贸易量大的行业提供免费的排放权配额，可能存在与WTO反补贴条款的冲突。单方面地将外国航空企业纳入欧洲排放交易系统，有 可能造成实质上的额外税费而违背非国民待遇原则。再比如，根据产品生产或流通过程中的碳排放而增加碳会计的标签，超出了传统贸易政策中只针对最终产品的这 个范畴。
我们对欧盟的政策尝试予以关注，期待在开放贸易和减缓气候变化方面能够双赢，也期待各国能够出于自身的利益和全球的利益，以宽容和合作的心态加入到 这个政策创新实验中来。欧盟应当在政策的酝酿和出台过程中，积极建立与各国、特别是发展中国家之间的对话和协商。尽管在短期内，欧盟的一些措施可能会诱发 在WTO框架下的贸易争端。无论是在双边还是多边环境下的争端，我们希望争端的解决是澄清各自贸易义务的机会，也是寻找促进贸易开放和可持续发展双赢的创 造性方案的机会。欧洲和中国注定在规则的解读和创新方面扮演越来越重要的角色。
成帅华博士是ICTSD战略分析和中国部主任。
阅读更多《桥》中文双月刊内容
更多有关国际贸易和可持续发展中心的热点文章
]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-82822" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="EU-China" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/european_flags-brussels-186x129.gif" alt="" width="186" height="129" />成帅华</p>
<p>欧盟2020战略提出， 贸易政策必须回应环境和气候变化问题，但同时要避免转向贸易保护主义。 这固然是一个很好的目标， 但是欧盟将怎样达到这个目标则是困难的，其政策路径往往是模棱两可甚至是自相矛盾的。</p>
<p>如何把握欧盟下一步的气候变化和贸易政策，对于中国政府和企业的决策者来说是一个十分重要的议题。</p>
<p>欧盟与气候有关的贸易政策的基本背景</p>
<p>欧盟一直有意在减少温室气体、减缓气候变化方面担当世界领导者的角色。但是，面临两个方面的主要挑战。</p>
<p>从外部看，不少人批评欧盟说得很多，减排效果却很有限。比如，一些评论家认为，欧洲率先设立的碳排放权交易系统(ETS)，虽然提出了减排的指标， 但是因为首批碳放权都是免费发放的，实际上并没有促进企业进行技术革新、反而推迟了走低碳道路的时间。 另外，从国际经济法的角度看，也有专家认为欧盟免费 发放的碳减排指标，其实质是对企业的补贴，不符合WTO有关补贴和反补贴的规则。</p>
<p>从欧盟内部看，不少人认为欧盟企业为达到更严格的减排目标而付出了额外的成本，从而导致在国际市场上的竞争力削弱和‘碳泄漏’问题。关于竞争力的担 忧，是指欧盟企业担心欧盟以外的厂家因为可以无节制的排放而担负较低的成本或者根本没有成本，从而造成了一个不公平的贸易环境，致使欧盟厂家处于不利的竞 争地位。碳泄漏的问题，指由于欧盟更严格的排放标准增加了欧洲企业的生产和运营成本，从而导致某些欧洲企业将投资转移到欧洲以外的地方，所以说碳并没有减 排，而只是泄漏到欧洲其外的地方了。</p>
<p>当前，国际气候变化谈判的前景不乐观，在短期内达成一个有法律约束力的全球减排协议可能性不大，在全球范围形成一个相对稳定的二氧化碳（排放权）价格更是遥遥无期。 再加上欧洲经济自从去年陷入低谷，迟迟不能走出危机，产业界和公民社会对竞争力和碳泄露的担忧进一步加剧。</p>
<p>未来欧盟政策的重点</p>
<p>在这样的背景下，欧盟贸易总司和欧洲经济与社会委员会等机构正积极酝酿下一步的政策取向。具体有这样几个重点。</p>
<p>首先，在雄心勃勃的碳减排目标下，设置一些缺口。</p>
<p>欧盟仍然计划设定较高的减排目标，比如到2050年在1990年基础上削减80%，而中期的2020-2030期间的目标是削减25-40%。 但是欧盟内部对于这个减排目标将对欧洲中长期的环境、就业和经济发展有何影响没有把握。</p>
<p>在改革碳排放权交易系统方面，欧盟也计划从2013年起逐步从免费发放排放权转变到排放权的拍卖，目标是到2020年拍卖的碳排放权至少占到70%，最终到2025年所有的排放权将进入拍卖。</p>
<p>但是，欧盟的一些专家提出，对于那些面临贸易竞争力挑战和‘碳泄漏’风险的行业给予宽限，即从2013年起继续给这些行业免费提供一定数额的排放 权。参照欧盟第2003/87/EC号指令第10a（15）条的规定，欧盟经济与社会委员会指出有11个行业，即：淀粉及淀粉制品，糖生产制造，其他非蒸 馏的发酵饮料，发酵材料中的酒精生产制造，纸张和纸板的制造，精炼石油产品制造，平板玻璃的制造，中空玻璃制造，陶瓷砖和陶瓷板的制造，铸铁管制造，铅， 锌，锡生产。</p>
<p>其次，在支持WTO多哈回合下的环境产品和服务贸易自由化谈判的同时，要开辟新的绿色技术贸易的途径。</p>
<p>IPCC已经建议了一系列的缓解和适应气候变化技术，其中很多技术正在WTO的环境产品和服务项下进行谈判，包括风能和水电涡轮，太阳能锅炉，太阳能电池和设备等。</p>
<p>欧盟认为短期来看，这些技术的进一步自由化对解决气候变化影响甚微，因为很多产品，特别是再生能源产品的关税水平已经很低（发达国家的平均关税 2%，  发展中国家平均6%）。相反，投资障碍和非关税壁垒将继续是这些技术向发展中国家扩散的主要障碍，包括繁杂的行政审批程序、要求服务提供商必须在进口国有 实体企业、以及对外国企业的活动限制。欧盟希望通过双边和区域性的贸易协议来解决欧盟产品和技术出口中的问题。</p>
<p>第三，对于联合国气候变化公约多边框架下达成有法律约束力的协定的希望降低，想借鉴美国和东亚实行的自下而上的战略。</p>
<p>从第一阶段欧洲碳排放权交易的实际效果来看，欧盟开始意识到不能只把希望寄托在碳市场上。特别是在短期内难以形成一个覆盖全球的碳市场，依靠碳价格来减少排放、实现欧洲经济的低碳转型是不现实的。相反，仅仅依靠碳市场可能使欧洲错失技术创新的时机。</p>
<p>欧盟逐步意识到有必要效法美国和东亚的自下而上的战略，加强对环保技术的创新研发进行投资，包括财政和税收上的激励措施，以及鼓励各个地方和区域性政府机构通过政府公共采购来支持清洁技术的发展。</p>
<p>第四，重视行业性方案，特别是高排放贸易量大的行业、航空运输也和水处理技术行业。</p>
<p>由于多边政府间谈判迟迟没有进展，欧盟更加重视行业性的方案也解决气候变化和贸易的问题。一是达成并执行一个国际行业性协议。关于这个议题，国际上 已经讨论了十多年了。虽然一直没有形成共识，但是，欧盟认为对于高能耗的行业（比如上文中已经提到的11个贸易强度大的有碳泄漏风险的行业），跨国的行业 性协议仍是一个可能的途径。</p>
<p>运输行业是下一阶段欧盟实施更严格减排管理的重要行业。欧盟支持联合国气候变化框架公约提出的航空业削减10%和海洋运输削减20%的目标。从 2012年起，航空运输业将被纳入欧洲碳排放权交易系统。根据RDC航空咨询公司的估算，这将意味着给欧洲航空公司每年增加11亿欧元的成本。欧洲碳排放 权交易系统宣布从2012年起将涵盖所有飞入欧盟的航空公司，这个有争议的决定将给欧洲本土以外的航空公司带来很大的影响。</p>
<p>另一个越来越得到重视的是水行业。一是因为气候变化对水资源分配的影响，造成或者恶化很多地方水资源的稀缺，二是因为城市化和工业化导致生活和工业废水的污染问题加剧。欧盟希望促进水行业的技术转移和合作，包括饮用水、海水淡化技术、废弃水的再利用等。</p>
<p>上述贸易量大、高排放的11个行业的中国企业需要警惕欧盟的最终政策走向，如果欧盟对本国企业提供免费碳排放权，同时对进口产品征收边境调节税或者要求购买碳排放指标的话，这有可能构成对进口产品的歧视，不符合其在WTO中的义务。</p>
<p>对于进入欧洲航空市场的中国航空企业，一方面需要积极准备向欧洲碳排放交易系统提交所需的以往年度经营额和能源消耗数据等资料，同时也要密切跟踪美 国航空业协会起诉欧洲碳排放权系统一案的进展。美国航空协会认为欧盟单方面把非欧盟航空企业纳入欧洲排放权交易系统违反了芝加哥公约禁止治外法权的原则以 及WTO有关进口税费的规则。</p>
<p>至于水技术设备和服务行业，对中国来说是一个极好的机遇，有助于解决中国急迫面临的饮用水和废弃水管理的问题。欧洲国家在水管理方面具有很强的优 势，经验丰富，技术手段完备。政府应当积极支持中国企业和欧盟之间的合作，促进技术转让和贸易，鼓励共同投资，开放水处理的服务市场。</p>
<p>第五，欧盟密切关注消费者和厂家的责任分担问题，积极推进碳会计（carbon accounting）。</p>
<p>消费者和厂家都应当对碳排放承担责任，比如制造商承担制造过程中的碳排放，而消费者对于流通运输和商店的碳排放担负责任。不仅如此，消费者的购物选择可以反过来影响厂商的行为。如果消费者选择那些生产过程低碳、环保的产品，就会鼓励厂家的技术更新。</p>
<p>欧盟日益重视消费者一端的作用，主要出于两个方面的原因。一是因为短期内难以形成有效的国际性规则来管制和约束生产厂家。全球化条件下单个产品的价 值链往往跨越多个国家，也进一步加大了在国别层面进行碳排放监管的难度。二是因为欧洲市场已经开始出现了一些自愿性的低碳、环保标签，但是市场上出现的这 些倡议比较混乱，处理得不好可能不利于消费者的参与。</p>
<p>当前的重点是细化“碳会计”的方法论。欧盟建议碳会计核算应当包括产品整个生命周期，从设计、投产到流通，同时增加碳会计制度的稳定性和连续性，并且在欧盟层面设立一个合适的机构框架对这些标准加以管理和评估。</p>
<p>这将对国际贸易产生巨大的冲击。主要是因为，传统的贸易措施关注的是最终产品的质量和环保表现，比如这个冰箱是否节能，而新的碳排放会计要考察这个 冰箱的整个生命周期即制造过程的节能程度如何、其原料来源和废弃物排放管理如何、该产品在运输流通中的碳排放以及产品寿命结束后分解或者回收再利用中的环 境表现。这是复杂的，但是如果处理得好的确是有利于地球环境和生活环境的长远之举。</p>
<p>结论</p>
<p>贸易政策可以、也应当能够部分地解决环境和气候变化问题，这是一个很好的设想。对于实践这样的结合，无疑这不是一个理想的世界，欧盟的尝试也必定是艰难的。</p>
<p>在内外两方面受到批评的情况下，欧盟将一方面维持其雄心勃勃的减排目标，同时推行一些过渡性的措施。某些措施可能与一些既定的国际规则相矛盾，比如 2012年以后继续给高排放、贸易量大的行业提供免费的排放权配额，可能存在与WTO反补贴条款的冲突。单方面地将外国航空企业纳入欧洲排放交易系统，有 可能造成实质上的额外税费而违背非国民待遇原则。再比如，根据产品生产或流通过程中的碳排放而增加碳会计的标签，超出了传统贸易政策中只针对最终产品的这 个范畴。</p>
<p>我们对欧盟的政策尝试予以关注，期待在开放贸易和减缓气候变化方面能够双赢，也期待各国能够出于自身的利益和全球的利益，以宽容和合作的心态加入到 这个政策创新实验中来。欧盟应当在政策的酝酿和出台过程中，积极建立与各国、特别是发展中国家之间的对话和协商。尽管在短期内，欧盟的一些措施可能会诱发 在WTO框架下的贸易争端。无论是在双边还是多边环境下的争端，我们希望争端的解决是澄清各自贸易义务的机会，也是寻找促进贸易开放和可持续发展双赢的创 造性方案的机会。欧洲和中国注定在规则的解读和创新方面扮演越来越重要的角色。</p>
<p>成帅华博士是ICTSD战略分析和中国部主任。</p>
<p><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-width: 0px; outline-width: 0px; font-weight: bold; font-style: inherit; font-size: 12px; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="../chinese/china/qiao/">阅读更多《桥》中文双月刊内容</a><br />
</strong><a href="../news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/"><strong><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-width: 0px; outline-width: 0px; font-weight: bold; font-style: inherit; font-size: 12px; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">更多有关国际贸易和可持续发展中心的热点文章</strong></strong></a></p>
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		<title>Bridges Trade BioRes &#124; Sticky Trade Issues Resurface at Bonn Climate&#160;Talks</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82363/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82363/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 11 Aug 2010 09:22:35 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>sdashiell</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=82363</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[
Trade issues gained further prominence in climate change negotiations this week as the delegates meeting in Bonn, Germany tackled market mechanisms, oil subsidies, bunker fuels, and agriculture. After a slow start, negotiators ended the week with detailed discussions underlining their concerns that new climate change decisions under the UN Framework Climate Convention (UNFCCC) could have [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-82364" style="margin: 8px; border: 1px solid black;" title="Bonn" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/chimney-smoke-stack-climate-181x129.gif" alt="" width="181" height="129" /></strong></p>
<p>Trade issues gained further prominence in climate change negotiations this week as the delegates meeting in Bonn, Germany tackled market mechanisms, oil subsidies, bunker fuels, and agriculture. After a slow start, negotiators ended the week with detailed discussions underlining their concerns that new climate change decisions under the UN Framework Climate Convention (UNFCCC) could have detrimental consequences for international trade.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, some progress was made on the question of new institutional arrangements, and countries appeared to continue their push forward to some form of useful decision at the annual Conference of the Parties (COP) coming up this December in Cancun.</p>
<p>The Ad hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA ) and the Ad hoc Working Group for Further Commitments for Annex I Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) began the Bonn meetings on 2 August with the aim of producing a new negotiating text. There was frustration at the beginning of the week that too much time was being spent on the negotiating process, leaving too little time for discussing the substance of the main issues. However, momentum picked up at the end of the week with discussions addressing trade issues.</p>
<p><strong>Trade issues trigger momentum</strong></p>
<p>When discussing the future of the carbon market and other market mechanisms for addressing climate change, a major developing country signalled their concern that these instruments create a potential for trade restrictions and discrimination. Countries also raised the question of removing oil subsidies as well as changes necessary in global lifestyle and consumption patterns.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, bunker fuels - which are used for maritime and aviation transport - were the focus of discussions on sectoral approaches, with a number of countries highlighting the risk that measures in this sector could also generate restrictions and limitations to trade. In discussions regarding approaches for the agricultural sector, text on livestock management was proposed by a developing country (see Bridges Copenhagen Update, <a href="http://ictsd.org/i/global-platform/bridges-copenhagen-updates/bridges-copenhagen-updates-english/64638/">5 December 2009</a>).</p>
<p>There are continued discussions regarding the legal issues of the Kyoto Protocol and the new agreement on Long-term Cooperative Action (LCA). Developing countries continue to push developed countries to agree to a second commitment period when the first period ends in 2012, as well as to finish the AWG-KP’s work in order to avoid a gap between commitment periods.</p>
<p>Discussions advanced, albeit slowly, on the establishment of new institutions to enable technology transfer, climate finance, and adaptation for developing countries. The current proposals are a potential area for agreement at the COP in Cancun this December.</p>
<p><strong>Parties still divided on Cancun approach</strong></p>
<p>In terms of outcomes for Cancun, this week’s Bonn meetings suggest there could be numerous options. While some hope for a single legally-binding agreement that would unify the Kyoto Protocol with the agreements under the LCA, others are pushing hard to keep the two processes separate, up to a final set of distinct decisions.</p>
<p>Still others see a potential hybrid outcome with a legally binding agreement accompanied by decisions on certain issues. Luis Alfonso de Alba, Mexico’s Special Representative for Climate Change told reporters that there could be as many as three treaties aimed at legally binding countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions and supporting the countries most vulnerable to the effects of global warming.</p>
<p>“We are not just talking about one single legally binding instrument but a set of them,” Luis Alfonso de Alba, Mexico’s special representative for climate change, told reporters in Bonn. According de Alba, it will take “several years and several instruments” to put in place a legally binding document.</p>
<p>The next round of AWG-KP and AWG-LCA meetings will take place in Tianjin, China beginning 4 October. This will be immediately followed by a meeting of the BASIC leaders (Brazil, South Africa, India, and China), who will be treating “trade and climate change” as part of their upcoming agenda.</p>
<p>In related climate news, US Senate majority leader, Harry Reid, has given up on passing an energy bill before the six week August Congressional recess, which begins today. In lieu of the failed climate bill, Reid had shifted his focus to an energy bill primarily aimed at addressing the Gulf of Mexico oil spill (see Bridges Trade BioRes <a href="http://ictsd.org/i/news/biores/81333/">23 July 2010</a>).</p>
<p>However, on 30 July the House of Representatives approved a bill to reform offshore energy drilling practices. Action on the bill is not expected before November or later.</p>
<p>ICTSD Reporting. “U.N. Climate Pact Could be Three Treaties: Mexico” REUTERS, 6 Augsut 2010. “AWG-LCA 11 and AWG-KP 13 Highlights” EARTH NEGOTIATIONS BULLETIN, 5 August 2010. “U.N. Climate Talks Need Quicker Pace for Global Deal” REUTERS, 4 August 2010. “House Approves Oil Spill Reform Bill” REUTERS, 3 August 2010.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/news/biores/">More Bridges Trade BioRes headlines</a></strong></p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/">More ICTSD highlights</a><br />
</strong></p>
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		<title>Think Piece &#124; The Political Economy of Trade and Food&#160;Security</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/publications/82053/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/publications/82053/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 09 Aug 2010 12:19:42 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Ammad Bahalim</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Agriculture Programme]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[ICTSD Publications]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[Think piece]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=82053</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Securing enough food to meet the needs of a growing global population requires managing the complex interplay between farming at home and trade with others. Andrea Wolverton, Anita Regmi and Ann Tutwiler look into challenges of political economy that undernourishment presents and how donors, such as the US, may be able to help.
]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/hunger-map-full.gif"><img class="alignright size-medium wp-image-82279" style="margin: 8px; border: 1px solid black;" title="Hunger Map" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/hunger-map-full-300x179.gif" alt="" width="210" height="125" /></a>Securing enough food to meet the needs of a growing global population requires managing the complex interplay between farming at home and trade with others. Andrea Wolverton, Anita Regmi and Ann Tutwiler look into challenges of political economy that undernourishment presents and how donors, such as the US, may be able to help.</p>
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		<title>Bridges Trade BioRes &#124; Ecuador Experiments with Environmental Protection&#160;Scheme</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82180/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82180/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 06 Aug 2010 19:41:23 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Andrew Aziz</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=82180</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Ecuador and the UN Development Programme (UNDP) have struck a deal to  have rich countries pay to keep the biodiversity-rich country from  exploiting oil reserves in Yasuni National Park, a World Biosphere  Reserve. The UNDP says that, if successful, the deal will protect the  Yasuni’s Ishpingo-Tambococha-Tiputini (ITT) - one of the [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-82183" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="biodiversity" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/jungle-biodiversity-186x129.gif" alt="" width="186" height="129" />Ecuador and the UN Development Programme (UNDP) have struck a deal to  have rich countries pay to keep the biodiversity-rich country from  exploiting oil reserves in Yasuni National Park, a World Biosphere  Reserve. The UNDP says that, if successful, the deal will protect the  Yasuni’s Ishpingo-Tambococha-Tiputini (ITT) - one of the most biodiverse  regions in the world - and offset more than 400 million tonnes of  carbon dioxide.</p>
<p>The agreement - signed on 3 August by Ecuador’s Foreign Minister  Ricardo Patiño and by Rebeca Grynspan, UN Under-Secretary-General and  UNDP Associate Administrator - aims to encourage rich countries to  purchase “forest carbon bonds” - the proceeds of which will be deposited  in an international trust fund to compensate for Ecuador’s forgone  royalties.</p>
<p>Quito says it will need to raise at least US$3.6 billion -  approximately half of what the country could earn by extracting and  exporting the resource - in order to make the plan viable. If the  targeted funds are not received, President Rafael Correa has said that  state-run Petroecuador will develop the oil project.</p>
<p>Under the terms of the agreement, donor nations will receive Yasuni  Guarantee Certificates (CGYs) in exchange for an environmental dividend:  Ecuador will keep the oil underground.</p>
<p><strong>Innovative approach</strong></p>
<p>“This is Ecuador’s contribution toward combating climate change,”  said Maria Espinosa, Ecuador’s minister of heritage. However, in  addition to the expected carbon offsets, the deal also includes  important biodiversity protection measures.</p>
<p>Roque Sevilla, who leads the Ecuadorian Commission on the Yasuni-ITT  initiative, has said in the past that the initiative is an attempt to  link the “two big issues” of global warming and loss of biodiversity  under one deal.</p>
<p>By incorporating these interconnected issues into a deal outside  traditional multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), the agreement  marks an innovative move in international cooperation on environmental  protection.</p>
<p>“Right now, this is an avant-garde project,” Espinoza said recently.  “Ten years from now projects like this will be the rule, not the  exception.”</p>
<p>The UNDP echoed these hopes, saying the ITT initiative will act as a  model for other environmental initiatives that could benefit from the  alternative model. “We are witnessing the inauguration of new  instruments of cooperation which will act as a basis for supporting  other national and international efforts directed towards the search for  economies that are in harmony with society, nature and the planet,”  Grynspan said in a statement.</p>
<p>The deal was spearheaded by the Ecuadorian government’s Ministry of  Patrimony in 2007 and designed in cooperation with the UNDP. The funds  will be administered through the UNDP’s Multi-Donor Trust Fund Office,  which handles 30 funds covering an array of issues - from HIV/AIDS to  gender equality to climate change - in 74 countries.</p>
<p><strong>Ecuador calls plan a “sacrifice”</strong></p>
<p>Because the fund envisions collecting only half of what the estimated  846 million barrels of crude oil lying under the ITT could bring on the  global market, Quito says it is going to great lengths to protect the  environment.</p>
<p>“We need industrialised countries to understand, in a spirit of  shared responsibility, that what we have decided this historic morning  is a sacrifice for our country,” said Ecuador’s Vice-President Lenín  Moreno, referring to the importance of oil exports in Ecuador’s economy.</p>
<p>Ecuador is a significant player in the global oil industry. In  addition to currently holding the rotating OPEC presidency, Ecuador  exports some 327,000 barrels of oil per day, making it Latin America’s  third-largest oil exporter. Approximately half of the country’s total  export earnings come from oil.</p>
<p>“We still have to collect the funds for the initiative to become a reality,” Moreno cautioned.</p>
<p>Germany has already signed on to contribute US$50 million per year  over 12 years to the fund. Quito says Spain, France, Italy, Belgium, and  others are likely candidates as well.</p>
<p>In March of this year, President Correa said if adequate funds are  not raised, his administration would implement “Plan B,” whereby Ecuador  would use the funds already collected to invest in renewable energy  initiatives, such as wind and solar power. Meanwhile, Petroecuador would  extract oil from the park with “minimum environmental impact.”</p>
<p>The 982,000 hectare Yasuni National Park is located in the Upper Napo  valley in Ecuador’s Western Amazon region. Scientists say it is home to  more tree types than exist in all of North America and boasts more  species of wildlife than any other place on earth.</p>
<p><strong>More information</strong></p>
<p>The official Yasuni-ITT Initiative website can be accessed <a href="http://yasuni-itt.gob.ec/">here</a>. (Spanish only)</p>
<p>“Ecuador, For Pay, Will Not Drill In Amazon Reserve,” REUTERS, 4  August 2010; “Ecuador Signs Fund For Non-Drilling Of Yasuni-ITT Oil,”  WALL STREET JOURNAL, 3 August 2010; “UN agency and Ecuador sign deal to  protect ecological site from oil drilling,” UN NEWS AGENCY, 4 August  2010; UNDP, Ecuador agree trust for Yasuni bonds,” CARBONPOSITIVE, 4  August 2010; Ecuador Says It Has “Plan B” If Yasuni Initiative Fails,”  LATIN AMERICAN HERALD TRIBUNE, 6 March 2010.</p>
<p><strong><a href="../i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/news/biores/">More       Bridges Trade  BioRes headlines </a></strong></p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/">More         ICTSD highlights</a></strong></p>
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		<title>Bridges Weekly &#124; Targeting Guatemala, US Launches First-Ever Labour Rights Dispute Under an&#160;FTA</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82094/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/82094/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 05 Aug 2010 07:23:02 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Paige McClanahan</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=82094</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[In a landmark move, the US has launched a formal labour rights  complaint against trade partner Guatemala under the Dominican  Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).  US Trade Representative Ron Kirk announced the decision on Friday during  a speech in Pennsylvania. It is the first time that any country has [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-82098" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="ron-kirk" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/ron-kirk-200x128.gif" alt="" width="200" height="128" />In a landmark move, the US has launched a formal labour rights  complaint against trade partner Guatemala under the Dominican  Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).  US Trade Representative Ron Kirk announced the decision on Friday during  a speech in Pennsylvania. It is the first time that any country has  filed a formal labour case under a free trade agreement.</p>
<p>In its official request for consultations, the US claims that the  Central American country has failed to enforce effectively Guatemalan  laws that protect workers’ rights, such as the freedom of association,  the right to bargain collectively, and the right to work in acceptable  conditions.</p>
<p>This alleged lapse in governance “harms US workers by forcing them to  compete against substandard labour practices and tilts the playing  field away from American workers and business,” the Office of the USTR  said <a href="http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/press-releases/2010/july/united-states-trade-representative-kirk-announces-lab">in a statement</a>. Kirk, in <a href="http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/speeches/transcripts/2010/july/remarks-ambassador-ron-kirk-enforcement-alleghn">his speech</a>,  urged the Guatemalan government to take “specific and effective action -  including, if appropriate, legislative reforms - to improve the  systemic failures in enforcement of Guatemalan labour law.”</p>
<p><strong>Dispute fuelled by labour unions’ concerns </strong></p>
<p>Labour unions in both countries have been publicly seeking action on  the subject since 2008. The American Federation of Labor and Congress of  Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) - the largest federation of labour  unions in the US - joined forces with six Guatemalan unions to file a  public submission with the US Department of Labor, in which they  denounced the alleged violations.</p>
<p>The US Labor Department issued a follow-up report in early 2009, the  results of which prompted the US and Guatemala to begin negotiations on  the subject. However, Kirk’s announcement made clear that the US is not  satisfied with the results of these discussions and has not been  appeased by what the Guatemalan government has done so far to rectify  these problems.</p>
<p>According to the formal <a href="http://www.ustr.gov/webfm_send/2114">consultation request</a> that Kirk and US Secretary of Labor Hilda Solis submitted to Guatemala,  the US has engaged in a series of investigations over the last 11  months in which it has examined Guatemala’s compliance with Chapter 16  of CAFTA-DR. This provision requires each party to ensure the effective  enforcement of its labour laws.</p>
<p>Their letter states that the US has “identified a significant number  of failures to enforce, constituting a sustained course of action or  inaction.” They accused Guatemala’s Ministry of Labour of failing to  investigate alleged labour law violations, failing to take appropriate  enforcement actions, and failing to enforce court orders.</p>
<p>Kirk and Solis, in their letter, also cited US concerns over  labour-related violence in Guatemala, adding that they were troubled  over the Guatemalan government’s response “to the use and threats of  violence that appear to be related to the exercise or attempted exercise  of labour rights in Guatemala.”</p>
<p><strong>Guatemala suspects political motivation behind US actions</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://www.minex.gob.gt/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=3411&amp;Itemid=56">In a statement</a> released yesterday by the Guatemalan Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the  Central American country expressed surprise at the complaint, and was  even more taken aback by Washington’s decision to announce the dispute  in such a public fashion.</p>
<p>The Ministry’s statement also alluded to Guatemala’s concerns that  the complaint could be politically motivated. The upcoming consultations  should be held in “an environment of seriousness and mutual respect  that will guarantee that the labour issue be studied objectively,” the  statement said.</p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p>Trade experts interviewed by The New York Times also suggested that  the complaint might not purely be driven by labour concerns. The  administration of US President Barack Obama has been pushing Congress to  ratify pending FTAs with Colombia, Korea, and Panama. The three pacts  were signed during the Bush Administration but lawmakers have yet to  ratify them. In recent weeks, Obama has especially been pushing the  Korea-US FTA, despite <a href="../i/news/bridgesweekly/81830/">deep-seated opposition from some members of the US Congress</a> - especially from some of his fellow Democrats.</p>
<p>Much of the opposition to these three pending FTAs comes from their  lack of labour provisions. However, if the Obama administration takes a  hard line with Guatemala over labour issues, the White House might be  able to prove to congressional Democrats that it views the subject as an  important aspect of trade policy.</p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p><strong>Next steps</strong></p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p>The two countries now have 60 days, from the date of the complaint,  to come to some sort of agreement in bilateral consultations. After that  deadline passes, the mechanisms built into the CAFTA-DR FTA could  subject Guatemala to an annual penalty of US$15 million, according to  Guatemalan newspaper La Prensa.</p>
<p>Should Guatemala then fail to pay the US$15 million, the US could  respond using trade sanctions - including the suspension of CAFTA-DR  tariff benefits.</p>
<p>However, only some of the concerns brought up by the US -  specifically, those relating to the enforcement of domestic labour laws -  can be addressed via CAFTA-DR’s dispute settlement mechanism.  Labour-related violence, for instance, cannot be dealt with using this  procedure.</p>
<p>The case constitutes the first enforcement case on labour rights that  has ever been brought under a free trade agreement. Since the  establishment of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994, the  inclusion of labour law provisions in FTAs has become increasingly  common. However, only the most recent agreements provide for strong  dispute settlement procedures for such cases, and even fewer allow for  trade sanctions in the case of failure to comply.</p>
<p>ICTSD reporting; “AFP: US files labor rights case against Guatemala,”  AGENCE FRANCE-PRESSE, 31 July 2010; “EE.UU. señala al país de violar  leyes laborales,” PRENSA LIBRE, 31 July 2010; “E.E.U.U. iniciará disputa  con Guatemala por violación de leyes laborales,” PRENSA LIBRE, 30 July  2010; “U.S. Plans Trade Complaint Against Guatemala,” THE NEW YORK  TIMES, 30 July 2010.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/bridgesweekly/">More Bridges Weekly headlines</a></strong></p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/">More ICTSD highlights</a></strong></p>
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		<title>Bridges Weekly &#124; Lamy Reports &#8216;New Dynamic&#8217; in Doha&#160;Talks</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81845/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81845/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 28 Jul 2010 21:04:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Paige McClanahan</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=81845</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[A “new dynamic” has emerged in the Doha Round negotiations, the head of the WTO told trade delegates on Tuesday, delivering a rare piece of good news for the beleaguered nine-year-old talks.
“After some months of impasse in the negotiations, my own sense is that we are beginning to see signs of a new dynamic emerging,” [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/lamy-formatted.gif"><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-81846" style="margin: 8px; border: 1px solid black;" title="lamy-formatted" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/lamy-formatted-200x128.gif" alt="" width="200" height="128" /></a>A “new dynamic” has emerged in the Doha Round negotiations, the head of the WTO told trade delegates on Tuesday, delivering a rare piece of good news for the beleaguered nine-year-old talks.</p>
<p>“After some months of impasse in the negotiations, my own sense is that we are beginning to see signs of a new dynamic emerging,” WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy told trade officials at a meeting of the organisation’s Trade Negotiations Committee on Tuesday.</p>
<p>“Clearly, it is too early to say whether this new dynamic is firmly rooted and can expand to all issues under the negotiating agenda which still lag behind in terms of maturity,” he continued. “It is also too early to see how you engage on horizontal trade-offs across different areas.”</p>
<p>The WTO’s Doha Round trade talks, which were launched in 2001 with the aim of helping developing countries build their economies through freer trade, have struggled with a thorny political climate over the past two years. The last high-level push for a breakthrough agreement came in July 2008, when ministers gathered in Geneva for what turned into a nine-day negotiating marathon. That meeting collapsed over a dispute on agriculture trade; the talks have largely languished ever since.</p>
<p>In a promising political turn in September 2009, G20 heads of state called for the Doha Round to be completed <a href="http://ictsd.org/i/news/bridgesweekly/56318/">by the end of 2010</a>, citing the round’s importance in ensuring a sustainable economic recovery. G20 leaders met again in Toronto in June, and <a href="http://ictsd.org/i/news/bridgesweekly/79230/">again they called</a> for global trade talks to be brought to a close. This time, however, there was no mention of a deadline.</p>
<p>Despite the political lull on liberalising multilateral trade, Director-General Lamy has persistently proposed new strategies to drive the talks forward. Earlier this year, he urged WTO officials to adopt a “cocktail approach” to the negotiations - mixing bilateral meetings, small group consultations with Lamy, and multilateral processes in an effort to find some new space in the talks.</p>
<p>This approach seems to have produced at least a few positive results, a number of WTO ambassadors said at Tuesday’s meeting. US Ambassador to the WTO Michael Punke noted that the cocktail approach has produced “some initial, hopeful signs.” Chinese Ambassador Sun Zhenyu described the new strategy as “positive and helpful.”</p>
<p>But, of course, many divisions in the talks remain.</p>
<p>The United States’ position has been the focal point of much of the recent controversy. Washington has for several months been demanding deeper concessions from large developing countries like Brazil, India and China. The US ambassador repeated that theme on Tuesday, reminding those assembled that, at the Toronto G20 summit, US President Barack Obama had “called attention to the particular responsibilities of the emerging powers of our 21st century economy.”</p>
<p>But the emerging economies insist that they have already bled enough in the talks. They accuse the US of trying to roll back the hard-fought progress that has come over the course of nearly nine years of Doha Round negotiations.</p>
<p>“To complete the round, we need to stick to the mandate of development and capture what is already on the table and not to re-do the whole thing,” Chinese Ambassador Sun told the meeting.</p>
<p>Brazilian Ambassador Roberto Azevedo echoed that sentiment. “In our view, we must find solutions within the realm of what is on the table,” he said. “Any attempt to get more in a selective and non-reciprocal fashion will not help the process and could only lead to a quick unravelling of the negotiations with serious and long-lasting consequences.”</p>
<p>Such debates will be put on hold over the next four weeks, as delegates clear out of Geneva for their annual summer holidays. As usual, the organisation will resume its work in early September.</p>
<p>Lamy, ever a lover of metaphors, left delegates with an image: “As I said earlier, we have all the ingredients of our cocktail. The mood music is more upbeat. Now we need to move from stirring the cocktail to shaking it vigorously, vertically and horizontally,” he said.</p>
<p>“When we come back refreshed in September we will need to start turning these plans into real progress by intensifying engagement,” he added.</p>
<p>ICTSD reporting.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/bridgesweekly/">More Bridges Weekly headlines</a></strong></p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/">More ICTSD highlights</a></strong></p>
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		<title>ICTSD Issue Paper &#124; Composite Index of Market Access for the Export of Rice from&#160;Uruguay</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81410/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81410/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 26 Jul 2010 15:17:57 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Andrew Aziz</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=81410</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[What keeps Uruguayan rice farmers from trading with other countries? Ambassador Perez del Castillo and Professor Alfaro investigate this question and work out a figure that captures taxes faced at the border, payments from the government, costs of meeting health standards and other issues. They find that, even with low border taxes, other barriers limit the [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://ictsd.org/i/publications/54791/"><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-81420" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="perez" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/perez-186x129.gif" alt="" width="186" height="129" /></a>What keeps Uruguayan rice farmers from trading with other countries? Ambassador Perez del Castillo and Professor Alfaro investigate this question and work out a figure that captures taxes faced at the border, payments from the government, costs of meeting health standards and other issues. They find that, even with low border taxes, other barriers limit the flow of rice from Uruguay.</p>
<p>To access this issue paper, please click <a href="http://ictsd.org/i/publications/54791/">here</a>.</p>
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		<title>Pontes Quinzenal &#124; Senado aprova política nacional para tratamento de resíduos&#160;sólidos</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81390/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81390/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 26 Jul 2010 13:28:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Adriana Verdier</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=81390</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[A fim de abordar um dos problemas ambientais mais sérios do país, o Senado aprovou, em 7 de julho, a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS). O projeto de lei tramitou por 21 anos anos na Câmara dos Deputados, antes de ser submetido à avaliação de quatro comissões no Senado – Constituição, Justiça e Cidadania [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-81414" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="waste" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/waste-186x129.gif" alt="" width="186" height="129" />A fim de abordar um dos problemas ambientais mais sérios do país, o Senado aprovou, em 7 de julho, a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS). O projeto de lei tramitou por 21 anos anos na Câmara dos Deputados, antes de ser submetido à avaliação de quatro comissões no Senado – Constituição, Justiça e Cidadania (CCJ); Assuntos Econômicos (CAE); Assuntos Sociais e Meio Ambiente (CAS); e Defesa do Consumidor e Fiscalização e Controle (CMA).</p>
<p>O projeto estabele que União, estados e municípios terão obrigação solidária de instituir planos e regras para o tratamento de resíduos, que incluirão restrições à disposição do material, implantação de programas de reciclagem e incentivos. Ademais, a legislação estabelece que os programas inseridos na nova política deverão se pautar pelo princípio de responsabilidade compartilhada, segundo o qual poder público, setor privado e toda a sociedade assumirão obrigações relacionadas à gestão dos resíduos sólidos. O texto legal inclui nesta definição os fabricantes, importadores, distribuidores e consumidores, bem como os titulares dos serviços públicos de limpeza e manejo de resíduos.</p>
<p>Com a aprovação pelo Senado, o projeto será encaminhado à sanção do presidente Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, ato previsto para 2 de agosto. Até esta data, os ministérios envolvidos com o tema devem manifestar sugestões de veto e encaminhá-las à Casa Civil.</p>
<p>O Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA) solicitou que a Comissão Técnica Tripartite reunisse sugestões junto aos estados e municípios para complementar o decreto presidencial. Esta comissão tem por objetivo articular as esferas federais na concepção de políticas públicas ambientais.</p>
<p><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A dimensão do problema</strong><br />
<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </strong><br />
A questão do lixo tem se agravado ao longo dos últimos anos e, atualmente, representa um dos maiores desafios à gestão ambiental, tanto para o setor público quanto privado. Na esfera internacional, o tratamento e a circulação transfronteiriça do lixo têm constituído objeto de tensão entre os países. Exemplo disso foi o incidente ocorrido em 2009, no qual 89 contêineres de resíduos foram embarcados no Reino Unido com destino a portos brasileiros – totalizando 1,4 mil tonelada de lixo. Após denúncias proferidas pelo Ministério das Relações Exteriores (MRE), as autoridades britânicas prometeram tomar providências para repatriar os dejetos.</p>
<p>Com vistas a regulamentar o manejo e o fluxo de resíduos entre países, foi assinada, em 1989, a Convenção da Basileia sobre o Controle de Movimentos Transfronteiriços de Resíduos Perigosos e seu Depósito. Este tratado estipula a notificação prévia e o manejo ambientalmente adequado de resíduos como condição ao seu movimento internacional.</p>
<p>No Brasil, a produção de lixo tem aumentado de forma preocupante. Em 2009, a população brasileira cresceu cerca de 1%, enquanto a produção de lixo foi elevada em 7%. Diariamente, são produzidas 170 mil toneladas de lixo no país. Os espaços disponíveis não são suficientes para receber a produção de lixo no ritmo atual. No caso de Brasília, onde o problema do lixo é emblemático, será necessário construir um novo aterro em, no máximo, dois anos.Do total de lixo produzido, 48% são despejados em aterros sanitários. Estes espaços possuem estrutura para isolar a população do contato com o lixo ou seus subprodutos nocivos, como o chorume e a multiplicação de insetos e ratos. Dentre o volume de lixo não disposto em aterros apropriados, 12% não são coletados e 40% são descarregados em depósitos a céu aberto (“lixões”) ou em aterros sem estrutura adequada de isolamento.</p>
<p>Segundo estudo produzido pela Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Limpeza Pública e Resíduos Especiais (Abrelpe), cerca de 70% dos municípios brasileiros não oferecem destinação adequada aos resíduos coletados.</p>
<p><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">As soluções da nova política</strong><br />
<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </strong><br />
O projeto proíbe a criação de lixões, uma vez considerados a alternativa mais perniciosa à disposição de dejetos. Também é vedado o lançamento em mares ou rios, bem como a queima a céu aberto ou em instalações não licenciadas para essa finalidade. Em contrapartida, as prefeituras serão obrigadas a construir aterros sanitários adequados, nos quais serão depositados apenas resíduos que não possam ser reciclados ou tratados por compostagem. Nos aterros, será também proibida a atividade dos catadores de lixo, bem como a moradia ou criação de animais.<br />
<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </strong><br />
Outra novidade trazida pela legislação consiste na obrigação imposta a fabricantes, importadores, distribuidores e vendedores de recolherem as embalagens e resíduos de seus produtos após o consumo. Essa estipulação, denominada “logística reversa”, enfatiza produtos como pilhas, baterias, pneus, óleos, lâmpadas e eletrodomésticos.</p>
<p>Além das empresas, os consumidores também serão responsáveis por parte do ônus na gestão dos dejetos. O projeto estabelece a obrigatoriedade da separação de materiais recicláveis, sempre que possível. As pessoas deverão acondicionar o seu lixo de forma adequada e realizar a separação onde houver coleta seletiva. Para essa finalidade, as cooperativas ou associações de catadores de materiais reutilizáveis poderão ser beneficiadas com linhas de financiamento público.</p>
<p>O projeto veda, ainda, a importação de resíduos perigosos ou danosos ao meio ambiente, à saúde humana, animal ou vegetal, mesmo com o objetivo de tratamento ou recuperação.</p>
<p>Há também previsão de colaboração entre as esferas do governo. A União deverá destinar recursos a empreendimentos e serviços relacionados à gestão de resíduos sólidos nos estados e municípios. Contudo, a concessão de tais benefícios será condicionada à elaboração de planos locais de gestão. Estes deverão apresentar como diretrizes gerais: um diagnóstico da situação atual da gestão de resíduos; metas de redução e reciclagem; normas para acesso a recursos; a priorização da coleta seletiva de resíduos; e meios de controle e fiscalização, entre outros elementos. O governo federal também deverá produzir um plano próprio.</p>
<p>A elaboração dos planos constitui uma próxima etapa na regulamentação da PNRS. O MMA espera conseguir o apoio necessário no governo para que a política seja regulamentada até o final do ano. Nesta fase, os debates com a sociedade, já realizados na fase de aprovação do projeto de lei, deverão ser retomados.</p>
<p>As primeiras repercussões da aprovação foram positivas. Segundo Silvano Silvério, secretário de Recursos Hídricos e Ambiente Urbano do MMA, a competição entre as empresas deverá estimular a logística reversa, pois alguns fabricantes já adotaram o recolhimento de embalagens e resíduos.<br />
<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </strong><br />
Segundo Carlos Roberto Vieira Filho, diretor da Abrelpe, a aprovação da lei promoverá a legalização no setor, além de colocar o país em posição avançada em relação aos parâmetros globais. “A logística reversa segue o mesmo princípio das diretivas europeias para lixo eletrônico”, avalia.</p>
<p>O projeto de lei pode ser acessado em: &lt;http://www.senado.gov.br/atividade/materia/getPDF.asp?t=81003&gt;.</p>
<p>Reportagem Equipe Pontes</p>
<p>Fontes consultadas:<br />
<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </strong><br />
Ambiente Brasil. <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos deve ser regulamentada neste ano</em>. (15/07/2010). Disponível em: &lt;http://noticias.ambientebrasil.com.br/clipping/2010/07/15/57583-politica-nacional-de-residuos-solidos-deve-ser-regulamentada-neste-ano.html&gt;. Acesso em: 22 jul. 2010.</p>
<p>O Estado de São Paulo. <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Senado aprova Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos. </em>(08/07/2010). Disponível em: &lt;http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/vidae,senado-aprova-politica-nacional-de-residuos-solidos,578412,0.htm&gt;. Acesso em: 20 jul. 2010.<strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></strong></p>
<p>O Estado de São Paulo. <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Metade do lixo tem destino inadequado. </em>(09/07/2010). Disponível em: &lt;http://www.estadao.com.br/estadaodehoje/20100709/not_imp578721,0.php&gt;. Acesso em: 20 jul. 2010.</p>
<p>Senado Federal. <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vai a sanção a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos</em>. (07/07/2010). Disponível em: &lt;http://www.senado.gov.br/noticias/verNoticia.aspx?codNoticia=103389&gt;. Acesso em: 20 jul. 2010.</p>
<p>Senado Federal<em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">. Resíduos sólidos</em>. (15/07/2010). Disponível em: &lt;http://www.senado.gov.br/noticias/tv/programaListaPadrao.asp?ind_click=0&amp;txt_titulo_menu=Resultado%20da%20pesquisa&amp;IND_ACESSO=S&amp;IND_PROGRAMA=&amp;COD_PROGRAMA=&amp;COD_MIDIA=11763&amp;COD_VIDEO=15504&amp;ORDEM=0&amp;QUERY=res%EDduos&amp;pagina=1&gt;. Acesso em: 23 jul. 2010.</p>
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		<title>Bridges Trade BioRes &#124; US Cap-and-Trade Plans Put on&#160;Ice</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81349/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81349/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 23 Jul 2010 19:34:19 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Andrew Aziz</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=81349</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[In the United States Senate, efforts by the Democratic Party to pass  limits on greenhouse-gas emissions have come to a screeching halt.  On  Thursday, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid announced that the  Democratic Party’s leadership will not seek to include a cap-and-trade  scheme in the energy legislation scheduled to come before [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-81352" style="border: 1px solid black; margin: 8px;" title="global-warming" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/global-warming-200x128.gif" alt="" width="200" height="128" />In the United States Senate, efforts by the Democratic Party to pass  limits on greenhouse-gas emissions have come to a screeching halt.  On  Thursday, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid announced that the  Democratic Party’s leadership will not seek to include a cap-and-trade  scheme in the energy legislation scheduled to come before the Senate in  the coming weeks, before that chamber’s August recess.  Instead, the  Democratic leadership will focus their efforts on a much narrower bill.</p>
<p>Indeed, the Democratic leadership’s recent announcement continues a  trend of deepening party uncertainty toward climate change legislation,  particularly in the Senate.  Since last May, when Democratic Senators  Kerry and Lieberman unveiled their climate change bill without the  support of the bill’s Republican co-author, Lindsey Graham, the  prospects for legally-binding limits to greenhouse gases have steadily  deteriorated (see Bridges Trade BioRes, <a href="../i/news/biores/75844/">14 May 2010</a>).  Numerous  Senators, including Democratic moderates such as Jeff Bingaman,  downplayed expectations for the bill.</p>
<p>Based on Reid’s comments, the new version of the bill - set to be  released next week - bears little resemblance to the original. The focus  has now shifted to the timeliest environmental issue in the US: the  catastrophic BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to proposed  measures to improve safety on offshore oil and gas drilling projects,  the bill could raise the US$75 million liability cap for companies  involved in oil spills. Other measures that are addressed in the bill  relate to land conservation, energy efficiency, and incentives for  natural gas-fuelled vehicles.</p>
<p><strong>Waning utilities support big blow to bill</strong></p>
<p>Despite being the bill’s most public advocate, Senator John Kerry had  appeared to progressively show a greater willingness to compromise on  the scope of greenhouse gas limitations. Though the original bill’s  scope included greenhouse gas limits on the transportation,  manufacturing, and utilities sectors, by the start of this week Kerry  seemed prepared to negotiate away limits on the first two in favour of  limits only on utilities.</p>
<p>After several meetings with prominent company representatives of the  utilities industry, most recently on Monday, Kerry produced no  breakthroughs.  Utilities had initially been the most supportive of the  Kerry-Lieberman bill of the three sectors covered in it, but after the  utilities industry learned that their greenhouse gas burden would not be  shared by the transportation and manufacturing industries, utilities  balked.  Instead, as a compromise, they seemed to ask for a weakening of  the Clean Air Act, which Democrats were unwilling to concede.   Consequently, no agreement could be reached.</p>
<p>However, it is probably an overstatement to blame the failure to  include greenhouse gas emissions on the utilities negotiations alone;  Senate Republicans, with their ability to filibuster Democratic  proposals, could have stopped most Democratic legislation from passing.   As a result, Democrats needed a unified caucus plus at least one  Republican vote to put greenhouse gas limitations through the Senate.</p>
<p>Yet many Democratic Senators, such as West Virginian Senator Jay  Rockefeller, refrained from endorsing greenhouse gas limitations because  such limitations could hurt domestic industries in their home states.   Given the fragility of the US economy, this concern seemed to  particularly resonate.  Further, Republican Senators have branded the  most widely discussed emissions limitation scheme, cap-and-trade, as a  jobs-killing “cap-and-tax,” and the negative branding has paid off.  As  recently as 18 July, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid stated that the  words cap-and-trade were “not in [his] vocabulary,” a testament to the  toxicity the phrase has acquired.</p>
<p><strong>Future of US cap-and-trade looking dim</strong></p>
<p>It still remains to be seen whether cap-and-trade, or some other  scheme for a limit on greenhouse gases, makes a comeback.  Senator Kerry  still vows to include such a limit in a bill, and it is possible this  limit may come up for a vote in the form of an amendment rather than as  part of the principal Senate bill.  Alternatively, even if the Senators  pass a bill without greenhouse gas limitations, they will still have to  negotiate a compromise version of the bill with the House of  Representatives, which included a cap-and-trade system in its climate  change bill last year.</p>
<p>As a consequence, the House pressure could force the Senate to  re-include an emissions limitation, though, in reality, the inclusion of  such a measure is unlikely given its tepid political support.  Further,  with the August recess coming fast, Senators will have little time to  devote to climate issues.  New elections are held on 2 November, and the  season between the August recess and the November elections are fraught  with campaigning, to the detriment of legislation stalled in Congress.</p>
<p>After the elections, the possibly-defeated Democrats might still use  the “lame duck” period between the election and seating of new Senators  to pass the legislation as well - though defeated parties rarely push  major and controversial legislation in a lame-duck period.  Then, after  the new Congress’ seating in January, the Congress will have another  opportunity to take up the legislation.  The Congress may feel increased  pressure to do so at this time, since the Environmental Protection  Agency has threatened to ramp up its regulations of carbon dioxide at  that time, which would undermine Congressional efforts.</p>
<p><strong>Proponents pan Obama’s lacklustre leadership on issue</strong></p>
<p>Much will rely on the actions of President Barack Obama.  In the wake  of the collapse of cap-and-trade from the Democrats’ legislative  effort, some activists have blamed the President for a lack of  leadership on the issue.  Though he campaigned for emissions limitations  in 2008, he has largely left the details of such emissions limitations  to Congress, whose House of Representatives passed an initial bill last  summer.</p>
<p>By becoming more involved in the climate change debate now, Obama  could help shepherd a bill through Congress, though he might also take  more personal political damage from his involvement.  The new political  calculus will matter as well. After this November, we will see just how  much the President gets involved.</p>
<p>ICTSD Reporting</p>
<p><strong><a href="../i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/news/biores/">More       Bridges Trade  BioRes headlines </a></strong></p>
<p><strong><a href="http://ictsd.net/news/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/">More         ICTSD highlights</a></strong></p>
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		<title>Pontes Bimestral &#124; Eleições na América do Sul: que impactos sobre a integração&#160;regional?</title>
		<link>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81109/</link>
		<comments>http://ictsd.org/i/trade-and-sustainable-development-agenda/81109/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 23 Jul 2010 09:00:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>dgodoy</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Trade and Sustainable Development Agenda]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://ictsd.org/?p=81109</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[
Diante do agitado calendário eleitoral na América do Sul entre 2010 e 2011, o Pontes debate os possíveis impactos da escolha de novas lideranças na região sobre as negociações comerciais. Neste artigo, são identificadas as principais alterações nos padrões de associação da região, com vistas a traçar perspectivas para a integração comercial na América do [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/elections-photo.gif"><img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-81293 alignright" style="margin: 1px 8px; border: black 1px solid;" title="Foto eleições" src="http://ictsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/elections-photo-186x129.gif" alt="" width="186" height="129" /></a></p>
<p>Diante do agitado calendário eleitoral na América do Sul entre 2010 e 2011, o <em>Pontes </em>debate os possíveis impactos da escolha de novas lideranças na região sobre as negociações comerciais. Neste artigo, são identificadas as principais alterações nos padrões de associação da região, com vistas a traçar perspectivas para a integração comercial na América do Sul no contexto da emergência de novas lideranças.</p>
<p>Os calendários de 2010 e 2011 serão marcados pela emergência de novos líderes em sete dos dez países que compõem os principais projetos de integração na América do Sul. Chile, Colômbia e Uruguai elegeram recentemente seus novos presidentes, e a escolha do novo mandatário brasileiro será conhecida em finais deste ano. Em 2011, Argentina e Peru terão eleições presidenciais. O agitado calendário eleitoral nesse biênio reacende o debate acerca dos possíveis impactos da emergência de novas lideranças políticas na região sobre as negociações de comércio internacional. Mais do que isso, as recentes alterações no mapa da integração sul-americana chamam a atenção para as perspectivas dos principais blocos regionais da América do Sul no contexto das eleições presidenciais.</p>
<p>Em muitos dos países dessa região, a temática da integração tem ocupado posição de destaque nas estratégias de governo dos candidatos. Por exemplo, no Brasil, o Mercado Comum do Cone Sul (Mercosul) constituiu recentemente objeto de debates entre os dois principais candidatos à corrida presidencial.</p>
<p>O presidente recentemente eleito no Uruguai, José Mujica destacou, em seu discurso de posse, a importância do Mercosul para o país, ao mesmo tempo em que exigiu maior reciprocidade dos países membros do bloco. Mais precisamente, a ênfase do mandatário uruguaio tem sido a redução de assimetrias entre os integrantes do Mercosul.</p>
<p>Como candidato nas eleições no Chile, Sebastián Piñera assegurou que direcionaria atenção ao estreitamento dos laços do país com a América do Sul e a Ásia. O novo mandatário criticou, entretanto, a carência de um objetivo claro nas iniciativas de integração em andamento na América do Sul.</p>
<p>A análise das perspectivas para a integração na América do Sul passa necessariamente pela identificação de padrões nas negociações comerciais dos países da região. A partir desses elementos, é possível observar mudanças na trajetória de determinado país em matéria comercial. Cabe destacar, contudo, que a relação dessas alterações com a eleição de um novo mandatário deve ser analisada com a devida ponderação, haja vista a miríade de fatores envolvidos nas escolhas de políticas comerciais.</p>
<p><strong>Padrões de negociação comercial na América do Sul</strong></p>
<p>Diante da diversidade de experiências de integração na América do Sul, uma forma de definir padrões de atuação na esfera comercial envolve refletir sobre o nível de desenvolvimento dos parceiros que o país tem buscado - se países desenvolvidos (PD) ou em desenvolvimento (PED) -, bem como no foco geográfico da busca por parcerias comerciais - intra ou extrarregional.</p>
<p>Colômbia e Peru, por exemplo, são países que há tempos buscam uma aproximação com os Estados Unidos da América (EUA). O Peru assinou acordos de livre comércio com Canadá, China, Cingapura, Tailândia, além dos EUA. Destes, todos tiveram suas negociações iniciadas durante a gestão de Alan García, à exceção daqueles celebrados com a Tailândia e os EUA, cujas tratativas começaram, respectivamente, em 2002 e 2004<a name="_ednref1" href="#_edn1">[1]</a>. Cabe destacar, ainda, que o atual presidente peruano deu início à negociação de acordos de livre comércio com Coreia do Sul, Japão e México, bem como de um acordo Transpacífico. É notória, portanto, a atenção deste país às relações bilaterais com os EUA e extrarregionais, com especial ênfase na Ásia.</p>
<p>Ao longo do mandato de Álvaro Uribe, a Colômbia negociou um acordo de livre comércio envolvendo El Salvador, Guatemala e Honduras, em vigor desde 2009, além de iniciar diálogos com Coreia do Sul (2009) e Panamá (2010). Essa gestão também tratou de dar andamento à vigência do acordo com o Chile. Na Colômbia, é possível identificar uma alteração substancial na condução da política comercial após meados da década de 1990, quando o país deixou de empreender esforços para a consecução de arranjos deste tipo na América do Sul<a name="_ednref2" href="#_edn2">[2]</a> e passou a privilegiar o aprofundamento dos laços com América Central, Ásia e EUA.</p>
<p>Tais opções extrarregionais foram buscadas isoladamente por tais países muito em parte devido ao fracasso da integração andina. As divergências políticas entre os membros da Comunidade Andina de Nações (CAN) forçaram a marginalização do projeto, a qual foi agravada em 2006, com a retirada da Venezuela e as constantes ameaças de deserção por parte de Bolívia e Equador. Os motivos para essa ruptura estão diretamente relacionados aos países e blocos com os quais alguns membros da CAN decidiram negociar.</p>
<p>O alinhamento estreito entre Colômbia e EUA constituiu o principal argumento de Hugo Chávez para justificar a retirada da Venezuela do bloco andino. Para o presidente venezuelano, a influência dos EUA na região era demasiada. O mandatário não se referia apenas à opção da Colômbia, mas também do Peru, pela negociação do tratado de livre comércio com a potência norte-americana.</p>
<p>Ademais, Bolívia e Equador mostraram insatisfação com relação ao curso tomado pelas tratativas do acordo bilateral envolvendo a CAN e a União Europeia (UE), iniciadas em 2007. Os dois países optaram pelo abandono das negociações devido às profundas divergências entre as Partes andinas em matéria de propriedade intelectual, proteção da biodiversidade e tarifas sobre a banana. Com isso, seguiu-se a adoção de um novo modelo de diálogos fundado na adaptação às necessidades de cada Parte. Sob esta nova dinâmica, Colômbia e Peru finalizaram as negociações antes dos demais membros, em março de 2010.</p>
<p>Se considerarmos que as próximas eleições na Bolívia, no Equador e na Venezuela estão distantes, é difícil imaginar que o panorama comercial observado na região andina seja significativamente modificado. Isso porque a vitória recente de Juan Manuel Santos na Colômbia, candidato apoiado por Álvaro Uribe (2002-2010), aponta para a continuidade da preferência pelo alinhamento aos EUA.</p>
<p>No Peru, os baixos índices de aprovação do atual presidente Alan García<a name="_ednref3" href="#_edn3">[3]</a> tornam provável o surgimento de novas propostas políticas e econômicas nas campanhas eleitorais de 2011, inclusive na esfera comercial. Contudo, na trajetória política peruana, insatisfações de ordem econômica e social conduziram à alteração do partido governante, mas não da política comercial do país.</p>
<p>Um outro padrão de associação comercial observado entre os países sul-americanos tem nos PEDs os principais interlocutores das negociações. O grupo que inclui Bolívia, Equador e Venezuela tem buscado uma forma diferenciada de integração, na medida em que articula uma agenda pautada primordialmente na coordenação política e social entre os países membros, como nos casos da Aliança Bolivariana para os Povos de Nossa América (Alba) e da União de Nações Sul-Americanas (Unasul). Cabe destacar que os governos de Hugo Chávez, Evo Morales e Rafael Correa representaram pontos de inflexão na condução da política comercial de seus países, sendo a mudança mais significativa a ruptura das relações amistosas com os EUA.</p>
<p>Argentina, Brasil, Paraguai e Uruguai também têm privilegiado associações comerciais envolvendo PEDs. Embora as negociações com a UE possam ser consideradas um desvio em relação a essa tendência geral, as perspectivas para um acordo entre os dois blocos não parecem positivas à luz dos recentes desdobramentos. Na última rodada de negociações, a delegação europeia criticou a imposição, pela Argentina, de barreiras comerciais a produtos agrícolas da UE. Mais do que colocar em questão o curso das tratativas com o bloco europeu, tais práticas protecionistas desafiam a coesão interna do Mercosul.</p>
<p>Desde a sua criação, este bloco constitui o principal sujeito das negociações de comércio internacional envolvendo os países membros. De modo geral - e principalmente no contexto mais recente -, o Mercosul tem buscado aprofundar as relações com o eixo Sul-Sul, bem como os países da CAN. Em ambas as frentes, os resultados foram pouco expressivos: no eixo Sul-Sul, foi celebrado apenas um acordo, com Israel (2010); e, no que toca aos diálogos junto à CAN, a fragilidade desta dificultou a observação de avanços significativos.</p>
<p>O principal desafio do Mercosul parece residir no âmbito interno. As críticas à estrutura decisória do bloco e à falta de prioridade ao objetivo de reduzir assimetrias já constituíam o foco das críticas das lideranças no Paraguai e Uruguai desde início dos anos 2000. Estas objeções foram acentuadas com a eleição de Fernando Lugo (2008-atual) no Paraguai e de Tabaré Vázquez (2005-2010) no Uruguai. A ascensão de José Mujica à Presidência uruguaia veio acentuar tais demandas.</p>
<p>De outro lado, a relação comercial entre os dois principais sócios do Mercosul encontra-se desgastada desde a crise econômica de 2008, contexto em que a Argentina suspendeu licenças automáticas às importações brasileiras. Como resultado disso, no primeiro semestre de 2009, as exportações brasileiras à Argentina sofreram queda de 43%. As medidas adotadas pelo Brasil em retaliação afetaram 9% das exportações argentinas, prejudicando a entrada de produtos como frutas, alho, vinho, queijo, cosméticos e farinha de trigo.</p>
<p>Esse quadro tem sido alvo de críticas no setor privado brasileiro. Para o diretor de comércio exterior da Federação das Indústrias do Estado de São Paulo (Fiesp), Roberto Fonseca, o Brasil deveria abandonar a estratégia de negociação em bloco, &#8220;dar um passo atrás e reinventar o Mercosul como área de livre comércio&#8221;.</p>
<p>A proposta do setor privado é apoiada pelo candidato José Serra, do Partido da Social Democracia Brasileira (PSDB), que recentemente defendeu a flexibilização do Mercosul. Para Serra, o bloco deveria ter sido anteriormente fortalecido como área de livre comércio, para que então se tornasse uma união aduaneira. Diferentemente, a principal opositora, Dilma Rousseff, do Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT), acredita no fortalecimento do Mercosul como alternativa às dificuldades enfrentadas pelo bloco. A depender dos resultados nas eleições do Brasil, a temática do Mercosul poderá entrar com maior força na campanha eleitoral argentina.</p>
<p>Quanto ao Chile, apesar de sublinhar a integração com a América do Sul como uma de suas prioridades, o novo mandatário Sebastián Piñera encontrará dificuldades de ordem política para empreender um aprofundamento das relações do Chile com a região. Tendo em vista a orientação à direita de seu governo, o alinhamento com países como Equador, Bolívia e Venezuela parece pouco provável. No âmbito do Mercosul, essa dificuldade persiste, na medida em que avança o processo de adesão da Venezuela ao bloco. Assim, o aprofundamento das relações com a Ásia - outra região que se encontra entre as prioridades da gestão Piñera - será, possivelmente, favorecido nesse contexto. Um primeiro sinal disso foi a recente conclusão das negociações de um tratado de livre comércio entre o país sul-americano e a Malásia. Ao ser ratificado, este tratado será somado aos demais que o Chile já possui com países asiáticos - China, Coreia do Sul e Japão.</p>
<p>Dessa forma, a atual gestão pode representar um afastamento em relação ao Cone Sul - ou mesmo à região como um todo -, uma vez que sua antecessora, Michelle Bachelet, privilegiara o retorno ao que acreditava ser a &#8220;vocação latino-americana&#8221; do Chile.</p>
<p><strong>Considerações finais</strong></p>
<p>A análise dos padrões gerais de negociação dos países sul-americanos revela a predominância de uma tendência centrífuga de associação comercial: alguns países voltados aos EUA, uns mais enfáticos ao aprofundamento das relações com a Ásia e outros que defendem arranjos com PEDs da própria região. O único projeto de integração comum a todos os países sul-americanos é a Unasul, a qual, entretanto, não se pauta nas relações comerciais.</p>
<p>Assim, embora conste nas campanhas presidenciais de parcela significativa dos países da região, a integração na América do Sul parece representar mais um elemento retórico. Mesmo nos países vinculados a blocos subregionais, é possível questionar o alinhamento de seus Estados membros, como no caso da CAN e do Mercosul.</p>
<p>É preciso ressaltar que esse quadro não resulta unicamente de escolhas realizadas nas eleições. Em alguns casos, como Colômbia, Peru e Uruguai, a emergência de novas lideranças significou mais uma mudança em termos de intensidade do que de orientação da política comercial. Em outros países a alteração desta mostrou-se mais significativa, como nas experiências de Bolívia, Equador, Paraguai e Venezuela.</p>
<p>De todo modo, a crescente visibilidade adquirida por temas de política externa nas agendas eleitorais incrementará o debate em torno dessas temáticas. Entretanto, a distância entre a retórica da agenda e a prática política na região deixa em suspenso as expectativas por alterações substanciais em um contexto próximo. Se não significar a revisão, no curto prazo, da tendência centrífuga na integração sul-americana, que a maior visibilidade desta realidade contribua, ao menos, para o amadurecimento do debate em torno de propostas nesse sentido.</p>
<p><a name="_edn1" href="#_ednref1">[1]</a> O acordo com a Tailândia entrou em vigor em 2005. Já aquele com os EUA passou a vigorar somente a partir de 2009. Ver: &lt;http://www.mincetur.gob.pe/newweb/Default.aspx?tabid=127&gt;.</p>
<p><a name="_edn2" href="#_ednref2">[2]</a> Um exemplo emblemático desse período constitui o acordo de livre comércio assinado entre Colômbia, México e Venezuela, em 1994, em vigor desde 1995.</p>
<p><a name="_edn3" href="#_ednref3">[3]</a> Em abril de 2010, registrou-se apenas 26% no nível de aprovação ao presidente peruano. Ver: &lt;http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultimas-noticias/internacional/2010/04/05/lula-e-segundo-governante-mais-bem-avaliado-do-continente-diz-levantamento.jhtm&gt;. Cabe destacar, de todo modo, que a Constituição peruana permite que um candidato seja eleito mais de uma vez ao cargo presidencial, mas proíbe a reeleição imediata.</p>
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